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Despite significant progress in research on the treatment and prevention of psychological, behavioral, and health problems, the translation of this knowledge into population-wide benefit remains limited. This paper reviews the state of America's children and families, highlighting the influence of stressful contextual and social conditions on child and family well-being and the concentration of disadvantage in numerous neighborhoods and communities throughout the nation. It then briefly reviews the progress that has been made in pinpointing policies that can reduce stressful contextual conditions such as poverty, discrimination, and the marketing of unhealthful foods and substances. It also describes numerous family and school interventions that have proven benefit in preventing psychological and behavioral problems as diverse as tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use; depression; antisocial behavior; academic failure; obesity prevention; and early childbearing. We argue that progress in translating existing knowledge into widespread benefit will require a nationwide effort to intervene comprehensively in neighborhoods and communities of concentrated disadvantage. We present a strategic plan for how such an effort could be organized. The first step in this organizing would be the creation of a broad and diverse coalition of organizations concerned with advancing public health and well-being. Such a coalition could increase public support both for the policies needed to focus on these disadvantaged areas and the research needed to incrementally improve our ability to help these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementing evidence-based practices is becoming both a goal and standard across medicine, psychology, and education. Initial successes, however, are now leading to questions about how successful demonstrations may be expanded to scales of social importance. In this paper, we review lessons learned about scaling up evidence-based practices gleaned from our experience implementing school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) across more than 23,000 schools in the USA. We draw heavily from the work of Flay et al. (Prev Sci 6:151-175, 2005. doi: 10.1007/s11121-005-5553-y ) related to defining evidence-based practices, the significant contributions from the emerging "implementation science" movement (Fixsen et al. in Implementation research: a synthesis of the literature, University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication #231), Tampa 2005), and guidance we have received from teachers, family members, students, and administrators who have adopted PBIS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children are continuously confronted with everyday stressors in their daily routine, and their ability to deal with these stressors has been found to be significantly related to their psychological adjustment. In fact, numerous studies have indicated that having a repertoire of coping skills at a young age can be a "buffer" or moderator" of the effects of negative life stress on the development of psychological maladjustment. Because of the importance of developing adequate skills to navigate life's daily challenges, a number of school-based interventions have been designed with the goal of teaching children specific "problem-focused" skills that are presumed to enhance coping, yet fewer programs have taught children "emotion focused" skills such as cognitive restructuring or emotional regulation to deal with more uncontrollable stressors. This paper begins with a review of the theoretical and empirical literature on children's coping with everyday stress and then provides a description of several existing coping skills training programs for children, highlighting those that are school-based interventions. A description is provided of a brief, school based intervention that was recently implemented to determine the differential effects of teaching young children "problem-focused" skills and teaching "emotion-focused" skills on children's subsequent use of specific coping strategies. The study and its outcomes are reviewed. The final section of the paper focuses on issues related to conducting intervention research in the schools, and specific suggestions for researchers are delineated for every stage in the process of school based research, to best assure that the research program can be implemented in the schools efficiently and effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although a number of reviews of gender differences in conduct problems and delinquency exist, this paper fills a gap in reviewing neighborhood influences on gender differences in conduct problems and delinquency. These influences are known to be important for boys in childhood and adolescence, but cannot be assumed to be influential in the same manner for girls. The paper starts with several conceptualizations of the association between gender, neighborhoods and juvenile delinquency. It then addresses 4 key questions. Is residing in a disadvantaged neighborhood associated with problem behavior in girls? Are neighborhood effects independent of girls' age? Are girls in disadvantaged neighborhoods exposed to more risk factors than girls in advantaged neighborhoods? Can mediating risk factors explain gender differences in neighborhood effects on children's and adolescents' conduct problems and delinquent behavior? Answers to these questions are important to steer research and elucidate aspects of interventions that can be optimized for girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper was to review the theoretical underpinnings, major concepts, and methods of the typological approach. It was argued that the typological approach offers a systematic, empirically rigorous and reliable way to synthesize the nomothetic variable-centered approach with the idiographic case-centered approach. Recent advances in cluster analysis validation make it a promising method for uncovering natural typologies. This paper also reviewed findings from personality and family studies that have revealed 3 prototypical personalities and parenting styles: Adjusted/Authoritative, Overcontrolled/Authoritarian, and Undercontrolled/Permissive. These prototypes are theorized to be synonymous with attractor basins in psychological state space. The connection between family types and personality structure as well as future directions of typological research were also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is good evidence that children of parents with psychological disorders are themselves at increased risk of disturbances in their development. Although there has been considerable research on a variety of disorders such as depression and alcohol, research on the children of parents with eating disorders has been relatively recent. This paper aims to review the evidence and covers a number of areas, including genetic factors, pregnancy, the perinatal and postpartum period, infancy, and the early years of life, focusing on feeding and mealtimes, general parenting functions, and growth. This is followed by a consideration of psychopathology in the children, parental attitudes to children's weight and shape, and adolescence. What is clear is that although there are numerous case reports and case series, the number of systematic controlled studies is relatively small, and almost nothing has been written about the children of fathers with eating disorders. What is evident from the available evidence is that children of mothers with eating disorders are at increased risk of disturbance, but that the risk depends on a variety of factors, and that difficulties in the children are far from invariable. The paper concludes by summarizing five broad categories of putative mechanisms, based on the evidence to date, by which eating disturbance in parents can influence child development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper summarizes the first decade of the Developmental Trends Study, a prospective longitudinal study of 177 boys. Initially, they were referred to mental health clinics in Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh), and Georgia (Athens and Atlanta). Since 1987, the boys, their parents, and their teachers have been followed up almost annually. The study is unique because the cooperation rate of participants has remained very high over the years, psychiatric diagnoses were derived from structured interviews (especially disruptive behavior disorders), and many risk factors were measured over the years. The present paper summarizes key findings on the development of disruptive behavior, especially Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. The paper also highlights results on risk factors and comorbid conditions of disruptive behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental engagement in the treatment process is influenced by parents' beliefs about the cause of their children's problems, perceptions about their ability to handle such problems, and expectations about the ability of therapy to help them. This paper examines the role of parental cognitions related to attributions and expectations in relation to engagement in child mental health treatment. Reviewed studies indicate that parental attributions and expectations influence three aspects of treatment: help seeking, engagement and retention, and outcome. This paper integrates findings from developmental and clinical research, highlights gaps in the literature, presents the beginnings of a model regarding the parental attributional process as it relates to engagement in treatment, recommends future research directions, and discusses clinical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This commentary discusses key themes in four conceptually related papers in this special issue on military families. Individually, the papers highlight the importance of the experiences of young children, the vital role of family narratives, the need for effective communication in families with a combat-injured member, and the need to understand the many dimensions of grieving and loss. Taken together, they compellingly make the case for family-centered care approaches and interventions. They also emphasize the need for families to understand and make meaning together of the experiences they have undergone and that this is a long-term, ongoing, dynamic, and interactive process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The papers in this section focus on public health responses and implementation considerations in addressing the challenges military families confront when parents go to war. While many military families show resilience, the challenges resulting from a decade of war with multiple deployments are detailed, as are innovative military and civilian programs designed to help service members and their families reintegrate successfully into the community. As more and more service members leave active duty, the burden of meeting military families’ psychological needs will transition from the Department of Defense (DoD) and into the Veterans Administration (VA) and civilian arenas. While many strategies to support successful readjustment are offered, in this time of dwindling mental health resources and competing needs, it is unclear what priority the broader society places on meeting the needs of returning service members and their families. A growing emphasis on family-centered care in the Veterans Administration may help meet this gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of a research literature exploring parallels between physical and nonphysical (i.e., social, relational, indirect) forms of aggression has raised many questions about the developmental effects of aggressive behavior on psychological functioning, peer relationships, and social status. Although both forms of aggression have been linked to problematic outcomes in childhood and adolescence, more recent findings have highlighted the importance of considering the possible social rewards conferred by socially aggressive behavior. This paper examines relevant theory and empirical research investigating the adaptive and maladaptive correlates specific to nonphysical forms of aggression. Findings are explored at the level of group (e.g., peer rejection), dyadic (e.g., friendship quality), and individual (e.g., depressive symptoms) variables. Key developmental considerations and methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations for future research integrating current theoretical conceptualizations and empirical findings on social aggression are advanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antisocial behavior and substance misuse are forms of problem behavior demonstrating considerable continuity over time. Accordingly, problem behavior influences interpersonal contexts across the life course, which may result in the replication of coercive interactions and a problem behavior lifestyle within romantic relationships. Furthermore, theories of self-selection, and associated research, suggest that individuals pick companions compatible with, and supportive of, their behavior, leading to high levels of similarity between romantic partners and the potential reinforcement of problem behavior over time. However, some research suggests that romantic relationships may play a positive role and facilitate desistance from problem behavior. The purpose of this paper is to explore how antisocial behavior and substance use both influence and are influenced by romantic relationships in late adolescence and early adulthood. We first review research regarding the extent of, and processes underlying, partner similarity in problem behavior. Next, we examine how romantic relationships may promote the desistance of problem behavior. Finally, we discuss possible moderators of the association between problem behavior and romantic relationships, as well as limitations, intergenerational implications, and recommended future directions of the reviewed research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent forms of adult and childhood psychiatric disorders, and they are highly familial. However, the mechanisms of transmission remain unclear. One familial characteristic that may promote the development of anxiety is the construct of parental control. This paper provides a conceptual overview of the construct of control in the parenting and anxiety literatures, reviews existing literature on control in anxious families, and reviews current conceptual models of and developmental approaches to anxiety. Based on the current empirical literature, an elaborated model that takes child developmental level into consideration is proposed in order to provide a better understanding of the role of parental control in the development of anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Once considered virtually nonexistent, bipolar disorder in children has recently received a great deal of attention from mental health professionals and the general public. This paper provides a current review of literature pertaining to the psychosocial treatment of children with early-onset bipolar spectrum disorder (EOBPSD). Commencing with evidence of the emerging interest in this topic, we then focus on terminology, the rationale for studying EOBPSD in children, current research and clinical progress, possible explanations for the recent increase in recognition, and essential issues that form the foundation of effective psychosocial treatment. Next we explore areas of research with direct implications for psychosocial treatment. These include biological and psychosocial risk factors associated with bipolar disorder; and the psychosocial treatment of adult-onset bipolar disorder, childhood-onset unipolar disorder, and anger management in children. Following this, we discuss treatments being developed and tested for children with EOBPSD. Finally, we conclude with recommendations for future studies needed to move the field forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Do parental marital conflict and dissolution influence the risk trajectory of children's physical health risk? This paper reviews evidence addressing this question in the context of understanding how early environmental adversities may trigger a succession of risks that lead to poor health in childhood and greater risk for chronic health problems in adulthood. We first review existing evidence linking marital conflict and dissolution to offspring's physical health outcomes. Next, we provide evidence supporting biopsychosocial pathways that may link marital conflict and dissolution with accelerated health risk trajectories across the lifespan. Specifically, we posit that consequential to the stresses associated with marital conflict and disruption, parenting practices are compromised, leading to offspring deficits in affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains. These deficits, in turn, are hypothesized to increase health risk through poor health behaviors and by altering physiological stress-response systems, including neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and neurotransmitter functioning. On the basis of the available direct evidence and theoretically plausible pathways, it appears that there is a cost of marital conflict and disruption to children's health; however, more comprehensive investigations are needed to further elucidate this relationship. In the final section, we address limitations in the current literature and identify research that is needed to better evaluate the association between marital conflict and dissolution and children's physical health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the prevalence of psychological morbidities in children who have been exposed to war-related traumas or terrorism as well as the diversity of war-related casualties and their associated psychological responses. The psychological responses to war-related stressors are categorized as (1) little or no reaction, (2) acute emotional and behavioral effects, and (3) long-term effects. Specific categories of war-related casualties discussed include refugee status, traumatic bereavement, effects of parental absence, and child soldiers. Psychological responses associated with terrorism and bioterrorism are presented. Lastly, mediators of the psychological response to war-related stressors are discussed, to include exposure effects, gender effects, parental, family and social factors, and child-specific factors. Children exposed to war-related stressors experience a spectrum of psychological morbidities including posttraumatic stress symptomatology, mood disorders, externalizing and disruptive behaviors, and somatic symptoms determined by exposure dose effect. Specific questions for future research are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

School bonding refers to the "connections" that youth have with their schools and various aspects of their academic lives. School bonding may be an important concept in prevention because it has been linked to various developmental and adjustment outcomes. This paper reviews conceptualizations, measurements, and theories of school bonding. Also considered are empirical studies that have linked school bonding to a variety of outcomes (substance use, delinquency, antisocial behavior, self-esteem). The review includes examination of how school bonding serves as a mediator in these relations and, in turn, is moderated by other variables. Despite inconsistencies in conceptualization and measurement, it is concluded that school bonding is an important construct and an appropriate target for intervention. Recommendations are offered regarding future research on school bonding, especially with respect to positive developmental outcomes and examination of variables that might moderate school bonding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety disorders are one of the most prevalent categories of disorder among adults and children. Children of parents with anxiety disorders are known to be at higher risk for anxiety disorders themselves, with manifestations of this risk often appearing in toddlerhood or early childhood. Yet because affected parents are often unskilled in anxiety management, they often have difficulty in helping their young children learn to manage anxiety. Literature on the course of anxiety disorders through childhood and on effective cognitive-behavioral interventions suggests that preventive interventions even with very young children could potentially be of benefit in mitigating the course of these often debilitating disorders. This paper outlines the rationale for offering early or preventive interventions to preschool-age children at risk and their parents and discusses means of identifying children to target for intervention and the importance of parental involvement. Drawing upon the literature on parental factors in childhood anxiety disorders as well as on effective intervention strategies with preschool-age children, it delineates principles for intervention with parents and effective components of intervention with youngsters in this age range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the theoretical and empirical foundations of Familias Unidas, a multilevel, family-centered intervention designed to prevent problem behavior in Hispanic adolescents. The main theoretical tenets for the intervention model; an ecological-developmental perspective, the centrality of ethnic and cultural themes, application of empowerment principles, and a family focus are reviewed. The literature on the risk and protective factors that provided the justification for the intervention's targeted mediators and the core clinical applications that are intended to alter them are discussed. Familias Unidas engages Hispanic immigrant parents into an empowerment process in which they first build a strong parent-support network and then use the network to increase knowledge of culturally relevant parenting, strengthen parenting skills, and then apply these new skills in a series of activities designed to reduce risks frequently found in poor, urban environments. The available evidence supporting the efficacy of Familias Unidas is summarized, as are future goals and a current, second-generation application of the intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Violence prevention programs with varying degrees of scientific support have proliferated in the United States and elsewhere. This paper previewed a broad range of programs involving youth, families, or systems that aimed to prevent or reduce violence-related behavior. The purpose of the review was to address critical issues concerning (1) target level of programming, (2) theory-driven versus problem-driven conceptualization, (3) cultural considerations, (4) developmental considerations, (5) intervention fidelity, and (6) outcome and impact assessment. Conclusions about these issues address tendencies and trends across programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines research investigating the effects of neighborhood context on the onset and persistence of early-starting antisocial pathways across middle and late childhood. The review begins by presenting theory and research mapping the early-starting developmental pathway. Next, sociologically and psychologically based investigations linking neighborhood context and early antisocial behavior are examined, in order to posit and evaluate the effects of community economic disadvantage, exposure to neighborhood violence, and involvement with neighborhood-based deviant peer groups on the development of antisocial behavior. It is suggested that middle childhood may represent a critical developmental period during which children are at heightened risk for neighborhood-based effects on antisocial behavior problems. Key methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations for future research integrating developmental pathways and neighborhood theory and research are advanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conceptualization and treatment of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) has been characterized by surprising homogeneity. In this paper evidence is presented to underscore the heterogeneity within ODD, including research demonstrating (a) the distinction between reactive and proactive forms of aggression; (b) the importance of affective modulation and self-regulation, and associated cognitive skills, in the development of the skill of compliance; and (c) high levels of comorbidity between ODD and other disorders. The disparate pathways that give rise to oppositional behavior suggest that different children with ODD may require different forms of intervention. The necessity of a transactional conceptualization, of achieving a comprehensive understanding of the factors underlying the difficulties of individual children with ODD, and of matching intervention ingredients to the specific needs of different children and families is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published research into normal fear now spans more than one century. During this time, a large number of papers have been published in the area. The resulting literature has led to a detailed understanding of normal fear experiences and, in particular, the ways in which they change with maturation. Of central importance, when evaluating the documented outcomes of this work, is the soundness of the methods and tools used in assessment. It is not surprising given the large number of researchers that have been involved in this area, that the assessment methods used have varied substantially. These have ranged from the methodologically problematic technique of obtaining retrospective adult reports to the administration of psychometrically validated fear survey schedules. An extensive review of this literature reveals that, for the last two decades, the fear survey schedule has been the most widely used technique for the fear assessment. The preference that has and is being demonstrated for the fear survey schedule as an assessment tool is most likely due to its many advantages including ease of use, objectivity in scoring, and provision of a substantial amount of information in a short period. However, despite its advantages, researchers and clinicians need to be cognizant of its potential limitations and, depending on the questions being asked, may need to consider using it in combination with alternative assessment strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A wealth of research is available examining children's story comprehension. However, little attention has been directed toward understanding the story comprehension of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present paper attempts to integrate the developmental literature on children's story comprehension with the little that is known about the story comprehension processes of children with ADHD. This review is guided by a network model of story representation that emphasizes the structure of causal and enabling relations between story events. Examination of the available studies indicates that children with ADHD lag behind their peers in their understanding of causal relations, and that their attentional problems may contribute to difficulties in understanding factual information in the preschool years and causally related information in the elementary years. Some evidence also is presented suggesting that children with ADHD are less effective in taking advantage of story structure features in guiding their recall of story events. Suggestions for future research are offered that would elaborate our knowledge of the developmental progression in the processing of complex information by children with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews evidence that behavioral family interventions are effective at improving child-rearing in distressed families and families with children exhibiting disruptive behavior. Essential therapeutic strategies offered within a collaborative therapeutic process are identified. Exemplary materials for parents and clinicians are identified. Differences between behavioral family interventions and two popular press parenting approaches are highlighted, including the lack of empirical support for these widely used programs and the advice they offer which runs counter to behavioral approaches. Recommendations are offered for combining behavioral family interventions with other empirically supported approaches, promoting more widespread use of empirically supported treatments, such as behavioral family interventions, and the need for a public health perspective on family functioning, involving collaboration among clinicians, policy makers, and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This issue of Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , “Children Exposed to Community Violence or War/Terrorism: Current Status and Research Directions,” addresses the current status of our knowledge as well as critical research needs in the area of children exposed to violence outside the family. Although much has been learned in recent years about children exposed to violence, significant research gaps remain, the identification of which may help to build a more complete and rigorous science base in this area. This journal issue represents the distillation of a 3-day workshop on children exposed to violence, held in July of 2002, that identified what is known about children exposed to violence and what this information tells us about future research directions. Although many federal agencies have supported some research in this area, there is a need for more targeted attention on the topic, particularly with regard to measurement, sampling, and interventions/services. The papers in this issue were selected with these themes in mind. Although no single issue could cover the entire field, we intend to offer a representative sample of where we are and where we need to go with the hope of stimulating additional thought, collaboration, and research in this important area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]