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The changing modal composition and volume of work travel in London, Birmingham, and Manchester and their resultant energy consumption implications are considered in this research. Essentially, the mechanism is to calculate the passenger km travelled by mode and then to apply mode-specific energy consumption parameters to calculate energy consumption. By classifying work-travel trips according to their travel mode and their location and orientation (within, out of, and into town) it is possible to determine where the major forces for commuting change are and, more important, assess the implications of these forces for energy consumption. Average energy intensities per person trip are not the same everywhere or for every energy-consuming mode; furthermore, the magnitude and direction of change in average energy intensities are not the same either. Many of the trends seem to be moving rapidly away from positions of energy sustainability. The data are derived from the 1981 and 2001 special workplace statistics of the Population Census for small areas, and from fuel consumption technical parameters calibrated by engineers. One important objective of the paper is to understand the relative importance for energy consumption of changing travel modes for work journeys and changing trip orientation caused by urbanisation trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

My purpose in this paper is to provide a fuller account of the origins and nature of city-centre living in Manchester, England, by emphasising its too-often neglected `independent' and ‘countercultural’ underside. Some urban policy researchers have made too much of the ‘entrepreneurial turn’ in Manchester, which is said to have been a key catalyst of its city-centre renaissance and city-centre living. My own empirical work as well as that of some cultural geographers highlights the ‘counter- cultural’ origins of the city-centre renaissance and, later, city-centre living in Manchester. I argue that urban policy research in Britain tends to characterise city-centre dwellers as young, single, professionals as if this was a more-or-less undifferentiated social group. Yet this demonstrates an oversight towards work undertaken by some geographers and urban sociologists who have shown that gentrifiers moving into British and North American city centres and inner-urban areas over the last two decades are a complex and differentiated group of housing consumers. My own empirical work shows that Manchester city-centre dwellers are a similarly complex and differentiated group of housing consumers that occupy a number of distinct positions within the city-centre housing market, and that this can be seen more clearly when the origins and subsequent development of city-centre living in Manchester is more fully understood. Three typologies of Manchester city-centre dwellers are identified; ‘counter- culturalists’ tend to originate from within the ‘new’ middle class; ‘city-centre tourists’ tend to originate from the ‘service class’; and `successful agers' tend to be over the age of fifty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]