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The current paper expands the concept of stressors to include two distinct types: recent (proximal) stressors and more distant (distal) stressors. It then examines the role played by these two types of stressors in an expanded model of the Life stress process. In expanding the life stress model to include stressors occurring over a longer period of time, the paper first examines the ability of distal stressors to increase the variance explained in depressive symptomatology above and beyond that explained by the more traditional model variables: recent stressors and social support. In modeling distal stressors in the life stress process, two models are tested: (1) an independent model in which stressors and resources are examined for their independent effects on distress, and (2) a deterioration model in which stressors are seen to affect subsequent levels of support, which then serve to increase depression. Analysis showed that distal stressors make a significant and independent contribution to explaining variations in depressive symptomatology, above and beyond that explained by more recent stressors and social support. Support was found for both the independent model and the deterioration model of the life stress process. Distal stressors, proximal stressors. and social support have an independent effect on current depression. Further, distal stressors and proximal stressors erode current levels of support, which in turn impact on current levels of depression. The implications of these and other findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is commonly assumed that exposure to terrorism may lead to violent behavior, but there is little empirical research on the relationship between these two variables. In the present paper, we examined the extent to which exposure to terrorism contributes to violent behavior among adolescents. In addition, we considered the role of environmental factors ( domestic and community violence) and personal and environmental resources (family and social support, mastery, hope, and life satisfaction). Two hundred and fifty-four Israeli adolescents residing in areas with different levels of exposure to terrorism completed questionnaires. The findings confirm that exposure to terrorism contributes significantly to violent behavior. Exposure to domestic and community violence and mastery also contributed to explaining the variance in violent behavior, whereas the effects of hope and life satisfaction were indirect, and were expressed only in an interaction with variables of exposure to terrorism. The findings may be helpful in identifying groups at risk for violent behavior, as well as in guiding professionals to moderate and prevent such behavior. The findings also emphasize the impact of security-related stress situations and prolonged exposure to terrorism on manifestations of violence. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]