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Retrofitting the building stock is pivotal to achieving climate neutrality by 2050. Most of the existing research on energy efficiency focuses on new residential buildings. The focus must shift to multi-building retrofits, thereby more frequently including non-residential buildings. As multi-building and non-residential projects are given a lighthouse role in achieving current global climate goals, more research should focus on this potential. This study covers single- and multi-building retrofitting projects. It also explores the role of non-residential projects, typical project settings, energy reduction achievements and the added complexity of the multi-building scale. The chosen methodology combines a systematic literature search with a subsequent critical metadata and full-text review of more than 80 peer-reviewed scientific papers. The results show that the number of studies in the research field has increased substantially in the last few years, while the research mostly originates from Europe and focuses on the residential building typology. This research is partly transferable to similar climate zones elsewhere, while a large proportion of climate zones remains unexplored. The current body of definitions and requirements regarding energy retrofitting is an impediment to the comparability of projects, and particularly the multi-building scale is in need of international guidance. Future research should focus on making retrofit measures more applicable internationally, while unifying project boundaries. The stronger inclusion of non-residential retrofitting projects as lighthouse projects including social aspects is needed. Retrofitting that covers energy production and sharing has great potential and should be seen as an opportunity. [Display omitted] • Multi-building retrofitting is emerging but requires clearer international guides. • Europe stands for most publications, motivated by policies and climate goals. • Most of the reported energy retrofits do not satisfy "deep retrofitting" goals. • Multi-building retrofitting results in added social and technical difficulties. • Clearer international guidelines and best practices needed to reach climate goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intensification of extreme events due climate change and sea-level rise are major challenges to be urgently addressed by Europe's coastal cities. Coastal hazards have the potential to cause significant damage to coastal communities. Nevertheless, various other climate-related hazards also pose imminent threats. This review paper examines the impacts of climate change on ten European coastal cities by means of a participatory process involving the coastal cities and the review of existing literature. Local expertise is included through the novel concept of Coastal City Living Lab. The study also leverages bibliometric analysis of the Scopus and Web of Science databases, along with a desk review of climate-change related institutions and agencies at international, national, regional and local levels. By combining scientific literature analysis with insights from local experts, this research provides a comprehensive overview of the current situation of these diverse cities in relation to multiple climate-related hazards, which can be extrapolated to other cities. There is a scarcity of scientific data for some of the cities, hence collaboration with the CCLLs was crucial. Results serve as a valuable baseline for future works, introducing detail studies focusing on various climate-related challenges. This paper not only contributes novel insights by including the perceptions of local partners but also offers a unique perspective on the complex nature of climate change impacts at city level. • Comprehensive understanding of climate change impacts on coastal cities through multifaceted methodology. • Systematic scientific literature review of Scopus and Web of Science databases. • Local expertise from a collaborative process involving ten diverse European coastal cities. • Unique perspective on the complex nature of climate change impacts at city level. • Baseline for risk assessments and adaptation strategies considering multiple climate-related hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops quantitative predictions for residential electricity demand and the potential for load shifting for Europe at a fine spatial scale for years 2022–2050. To date only theoretical and spatially coarse measurements of this potential exist for a subset of technologies used in the residential sector. As the EU moves towards an 'Energy Union', it will be increasingly necessary to consider the whole integrated energy system across the EU and thereby databases with large spatial coverage are needed. To fill this need, we generate hourly load profiles for the residential sector for key electricity consuming devices that take into account the most recent empirical studies of usage patterns, and of the cost and willingness of households to participate in load shifting programs. Additionally, we extend the list of investigated technologies by the important classes of electric mobility and heat pumps for electric space heating. Predictions and insights provided in our article serve multiple use cases, i. they can be used in energy system models to assess the value of load shifting for the future energy system including system costs, ii. they enable infrastructure planners and grid operators to calibrate their expectations of the future role of load shifting in the electricity systems and iii. enable policy makers and to include load shifting in their considerations of future market designs. • Quantitative predictions for residential electricity demand and the potential for load shifting for Europe at a fine spatial scale for years 2022–2050. • Residential coverage of electric vehicles, heat pumps, storage heaters, water heaters, air conditioners, refrigeration, and washing equipment. • Substantial potentials are identified for electric vehicles and heat pumps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To meet environmental goals while maintaining economic competitiveness, worldwide ports have increased the amount of renewable energy production and have focused in optimizing performances and energy efficiency. However, carbon-neutral operation of industrial port areas (IPA) is challenging and requires the decarbonization of industrial processes and heavy transport systems. This study proposes a comprehensive review of decarbonization strategies for IPA, with a particular focus on the role that green hydrogen could play when used as renewable energy carrier. Much information on existing and future technologies was also derived from the analysis of 74 projects (existing and planned) in 36 IPAs, 80 % of which are in Europe, concerning hydrogen-based decarbonization strategies. The overall review shows that engine operation of ships at berth are responsible of more than 70 % of emissions in ports. Therefore, onshore power supply (OPS) seems to be one of the main strategies to reduce port pollution. Nevertheless, OPS powered by hydrogen is not today easily achievable. By overcoming the current cost-related and regulation barriers, hydrogen can also be used for the import/export of green energy and the decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors. The technical and economic data regarding hydrogen-based technologies and strategies highlighted in this paper are useful for further research in the field of definition and development of decarbonization strategies in the IPA. • Comprehensive review of decarbonization strategies for industrial port areas. • Hydrogen-powered cold ironing can have a great impact in reducing emissions. • Hydrogen FC is an emission-free option for port heavy-duty vehicles/equipment. • Hydrogen hubs in ports can help decarbonize heavy industry and shipping sectors. • 74 projects considering hydrogen production/use to decarbonize IPA are analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ammonia is a promising alternative for the storage and transport of renewable hydrogen over long distances. In this paper, a techno-economic assessment was conducted to evaluate the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) produced from renewable ammonia feedstocks. Both thermal and electrochemical pathways were analyzed. For the thermal pathway we investigated the decomposition using fixed bed reactor and membrane technology, while alkaline electrolysis was studied for the electrochemical route. We evaluated different process scales corresponding to stationary reconversion in a hydrogen refueling station (1000 kgH 2 /day) or an ammonia import terminal (1500 tNH 3 /year) and mobile on-board reconversion for a heavy-duty truck (22 kgH 2 /day). The results show that currently the cheapest option to produce hydrogen from ammonia is the thermal decomposition with membrane technology for import terminal, fixed bed for the hydrogen refueling station, and electrolysis on-board a truck. The levelized cost of hydrogen for the thermal decomposition methods in an ammonia import terminal lie in the range of hydrogen prices produced from today's mix of renewable energy and water as feedstock in Europe. A sensitivity analysis shows that, regardless of the process scale, the parameters with the highest impact on the levelized cost of hydrogen are the reactor temperature for the membrane technology, and ammonia price for fixed bed and electrolysis technologies. The reconversion costs in the latter case are most sensitive to the cell voltage. A future scenario analysis indicates that ammonia electrolysis reconversion costs can be reduced between 14% and 44%, depending on the process scale. [Display omitted] • Currently, the lowest LCOH for NH 3 reconversion in to H 2 is achieved with a membrane reactor in large scale applications. • Electrolysis is the cheapest option to reconvert hydrogen on-board a truck. • In the future scenario ammonia electrolysis continues to be the cheapest option to reconvert hydrogen on-board a truck. • Long distance transportation of H 2 using NH 3 can be cost competitive when reconversion takes place in an import terminal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, there have been several initiatives for the deployment of cross-Mediterranean HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) links to enable the transmission of electrical power from renewable energy sources between North Africa and Europe. These initiatives were mainly driven by the potential economic, environmental and technical benefits of these HVDC interconnections. In previous studies on these projects, some technical aspects of critical importance have not been addressed or studied in sufficient detail. One of these key aspects relates to the impact and possible benefit of these HVDC links on the dynamic performance of the European system which is the major focus of this paper. Several issues relating to the dynamic performance of the system are addressed here. Based on the experience gained from existing AC/DC projects around the world, this paper shows that the HVDC links between North Africa and Europe can greatly improve the dynamic performance of the European system especially in the southern regions. In addition, some challenges on the operation and control of these HVDC links are highlighted and solutions to overcome these challenges are proposed. This review paper, therefore, serves as a preliminary study for further detailed investigation of specific impacts or benefits of these interconnections on the overall performance of the European system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper briefly discusses the assessment of hydropower resources (mainly, Small Hydropower, SHP) in the light of general methodologies of renewable energy potential, highlighting the particularities of hydropower. A short review of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) from the hydropower development perspective is provided, especially focusing on the impact of power plant pre-planning mechanisms whereby rivers or their reaches are listed as exempt from damming (so-called ‘no go areas’). The hydropower regulation (for prospective hydropower schemes) in the country is critically reviewed, and the current state of the drafting of river basin management plans is presented. Practically speaking, the national water law does not guarantee a declared statement of sustainable use of water resources because of the introduced list of protected rivers exempt from dam construction. In a number of multipurpose water resource development projects that override public interests, e.g., inland navigation and historic water mills, power generation is a secondary service unable to be implemented, due to on the list of protected rivers. In this paper, based on the geospatial datasets of water streams and their environmental attributes, three pre-planning levels for hydropower development are proposed, and the environmentally compliant potential of the SHP is identified. The remaining SHP potential (117 GWh/year or close to 6% of the gross theoretical potential) is among the lowest ones in the EU. The disproportionate environmental constraints in Lithuania are a key factor preventing the development of hydropower and the multipurpose use of water resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global energy demand is lowering its growth, but it is still expected to increase by 30% between now and 2040. To decrease greenhouse gas emissions a shift to more sustainable renewable energy sources is fundamental. Among the renewable energy sources, biomasses already have the largest share in Europe and their future demand for biorefinery plants will increase at global level. This study provides a comprehensive and exportable categorization of the residual biomasses (RB) from different supply sectors. Thanks to the individual descriptive and quantitative parameters introduced in the paper, an estimate of the theoretical and techno-economic potential is presented for a well-industrialized, agricultural-oriented and environmentally advanced European Region. Results are presented as recoverable biogas or biomethane, considering also the seasonal availability. In a relatively small region like Emilia Romagna (Italy), 106 different types of residual biomasses belonging to 6 main groups have been characterized. Over half of the total residues come from the agro-industrial and food businesses (58) followed by the agricultural sector (33). The estimate reveals a theoretical potential of 3544 ± 291 Gg/year of total solids for thermochemical valorisation and 3460 ± 639 Gg/year of total solids suitable for biological treatment. In terms of unused potential, the quantities decrease respectively to 2120 ± 298 and 915 ± 167 Gg/year. The estimates indicate stable results over the years from 2014 to 2016. The seasonal availability shows two evident peaks from August to October, while a significant shortage is present from April to June for the residues suitable for thermochemical valorisation. The theoretical potential that can be obtained from the Region's residues corresponds to about 1.8–2.3 million TOE/year, corresponding to 13–17% of the total regional consumption. Unused residues contribute to 0.9–1.2 million TOE/year. Image 1 • A fully comprehensive and exportable categorization of the RBs is developed. • 106 residual biomasses have been identified and estimated in Emilia Romagna Region. • About 1.5 Mg/year/capita of total solids is produced in the Region. • The theoretical RB potential covers the 13–17% of the regional energy consumption. • The unused RB potential decrease to 7–9% of the annual regional energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities are gaining prominence committing to respond to the threat of climate change, e.g., by developing local climate plans or strategies. However, little is known regarding the approaches and processes of plan development and implementation, or the success and effectiveness of proposed measures. Mainstreaming is regarded as one approach associated with (implementation) success, but the extent of integration of local climate policies and plans in ongoing sectoral and/or development planning is unclear. This paper analyses 885 cities across the 28 European countries to create a first reference baseline on the degree of climate mainstreaming in local climate plans. This will help to compare the benefits of mainstreaming versus dedicated climate plans, looking at policy effectiveness and ultimately delivery of much needed climate change efforts at the city level. All core cities of the European Urban Audit sample were analyzed, and their local climate plans classified as dedicated or mainstreamed in other local policy initiatives. It was found that the degree of mainstreaming is low for mitigation (9% of reviewed cities; 12% of the identified plans) and somewhat higher for adaptation (10% of cities; 29% of plans). In particular horizontal mainstreaming is a major effort for local authorities; an effort that does not necessarily pay off in terms of success of action implementation. This study concludes that climate change issues in local municipalities are best tackled by either, developing a dedicated local climate plan in parallel to a mainstreamed plan or by subsequently developing first the dedicated and later a mainstreaming plan (joint or subsequent "dual track approach"). Cities that currently provide dedicated local climate plans (66% of cities for mitigation; 26% of cities for adaptation) may follow-up with a mainstreaming approach. This promises effective implementation of tangible climate actions as well as subsequent diffusion of climate issues into other local sector policies. The development of only broad sustainability or resilience strategies is seen as critical. • Trends in mainstreaming climate change issues were analyzed for 885 cities EU-28. • EU cities provide numerous local mitigation (#664) and/or adaptation (#321) plans. • Mainstreaming was investigated as vertical and horizontal approach. • 9% of cities have mainstreamed mitigation LCP; 12% of mitigation LCPs mainstreamed. • 10% of cities have mainstreamed adaptation LCP; 29% of adaptation LCPs mainstreamed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive taxonomy and assessment of existing and emerging space cooling technologies in Europe. The study aims to categorize 32 alternative space cooling technologies based on eight scouting parameters (physical energy form, basic working/operating principle, refrigerant or heat transfer medium, phase of the working fluid, specific physical process/device, type of space cooling technology, fuel type and technology readiness level) and evaluate their key characteristics and development trends. The increasing demand for space cooling in Europe necessitates a thorough understanding of these technologies and their potential for energy efficiency. The majority of space cooling demand in Europe is currently met by conventional vapour compression systems, while a small portion is covered by thermally-driven heat pumps. The study reveals that several alternative space cooling technologies show promise for energy-efficient cooling but are not yet competitive with vapour compression systems in terms of efficiency and cost in the short-term and medium-term. However, technologies such as membrane heat pumps, thermionic systems, thermotunnel systems, and evaporative liquid desiccant systems demonstrate cost-competitiveness and energy efficiency in specific applications. The findings highlight the need for further research and development to improve the efficiency, costs, and market competitiveness of alternative space cooling technologies. The study also emphasizes the importance of policy support and the urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which can drive the adoption and advancement of sustainable cooling solutions. • The study provides a taxonomy of 32 space cooling technologies in the EU • Eight scouting parameters are discussed to categorize the space cooling technologies • Most of the alternative technologies have potential but can't compete in efficiency and cost • Only ten of the alternative cooling technologies have a TRL between 5 and 9 • Membrane heat pumps, thermionic systems, thermotunnel systems, and evaporative liquid desiccant systems are cost-competitive and energy-efficient in certain applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The market of batteries for electric mobility is expected to greatly expand in Europe during the next decades. The most sustainable batteries to be produced in the future depend on the primary and secondary resources available and on the capacity to produce and recycle battery cells. This paper proposes an optimization model based on Material Flow Analysis and prospective Life Cycle Assessment which allows us to suggest the types of batteries which should be produced and recycled, the primary and secondary resources to be used, and in which quantities. Several scenarios are proposed to address the uncertainty of the future batteries market. In the Reference Scenario, designed to reflect the European policies, the results show that Europe would achieve high self-sufficiency from external producers (72%), but this percentage could decrease drastically in the case of alternative scenarios (up to 35%). Furthermore, in the Reference Scenario, lithium-iron-phosphates (40%) and lithium-air (23%) batteries result to be the best options. To cut the consumption of lithium and cobalt, sodium-ion cells (3%) could also be considered for manufacturing or even nickel-cobalt-manganese (6%) type to exploit secondary cobalt. In alternative scenarios instead, the proposed algorithm would suggest different choices as a function of the boundary conditions. For instance, in case the demand and the re-use rate of the cells are higher than in the Reference Scenario, the environmental impact of batteries for mobility turns out to increase because of the lower self-sufficiency of the European industry. • Material flow analysis and prospective LCA are integrated into an optimization model. • Several scenarios are set to address the uncertainty of the future batteries industry. • The European batteries' production and recycling to cut GHG emissions are assessed. • The optimal management of primary and secondary resources is evaluated in time. • The model evaluates the batteries industry's relevant GHG mitigation (up to −45%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Increasing flexibility in electricity systems with high-shares of volatile renewable generation is on top of the European policy making agenda. Large-scale pumped hydro storages are appropriate technology candidates to accomplish this. Therefore, they are one of the focus technologies of the European Commission in the Projects of Common Interest discussion. In order to get listed a thorough system benefit analysis has to be conducted. This paper investigates a comprehensive socio-economic benefit analysis of storage technologies according to the indicators expected by the European Commission. The dispatch model EDisOn + Balancing is applied, which includes the functionalities depicting balancing mechanisms. Additionally, the profitability analysis tries to sort out the most convincing business cases where storage technologies contributing to more flexibility in the electricity system can sustain in the long-run. A simulation tool has been developed to model and quantify flexibility options, and to evaluate the profitability from the owner's point-of-view. The results show that in Central Europe with increasing storage capacities the necessity of reserve capacity and investments in peaking units decreases while maintaining a high security of supply level. In addition to electricity generation and balancing cost reductions, shedding of renewables and significant amounts of environmental damage costs of up to 1300 MEuro/a can be avoided. The profitability study shows that a reduction of minimum load or retrofitting hydro reservoir storages with pump mode increase the hours of participation in balancing markets and machine utilisation, e.g. operating hours and frequency of machine starts. With the latter also wear of machines increases. Therefore, it is important to find the optimum in terms of machine starts and market benefits. Several benefits are presented per installed capacity to provide scalability and transferability of outcomes for other applications. Furthermore, the analyses make an important contribution to the European Projects of Common Interest discussion. Highlights • Planned hydro projects in AT till 2030 avoid environmental damage costs of 1300 MEuro/a in CE. • 3.5 GW turbine capacity in addition replaces 1 GW of thermal power capacity. • Reducing minimum load of PHS by 50. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a set of policy recommendations for the market design of a future European electricity system characterized by a dominant share of renewable energy supply (RES), in line with the stated targets of European governments. We discuss the market failures that need to be addressed to accommodate RES in liberalized electricity markets, review the evolution of the EU's RES policy mechanisms, and summarize the key market impacts of variable RES to date. We then set out economic principles for wholesale market design and use these to develop our policy recommendations. Our analysis covers the value of interconnection and market integration, electricity storage, the design of RES support mechanisms, distributed generation and network tariffs, the pricing of electricity and flexibility as well as long-term contracting and risk management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Turkey as in Europe, the share of natural gas (NG) in the generation of electricity has shown a dramatic increase since the 1990s. Although Turkey faced two economic crises in the last decade, its total electricity generation has increased by 60%. NG consumption was 0.43 bcm in 1987 and reached 40 bcm by 2014. A big fraction of total electricity generation (TEG) is produced from NG. While the NG-based electricity generation was 0.2% in 1985, its share increased rapidly and it has reached to 48% of the TEG in 2014 and share of NG in total thermal power is about 60%. The goal of this paper is to review the historical development of the electricity and NG sectors, and to forecast and review the process of electricity generation with NG. Additionally, this paper compare the use of NG in electricity generation in Turkey and World, and analyze the supply–demand projections and future prospects in the field of energy. Results obtained from the present study show that a diversity of energy resources has not been achieved and as it is today in meeting the increasing energy demand, NG will continue to be a priority in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the abundant availability of resources, the market potential, and their cost competitiveness, onshore wind farms and photovoltaic units are expected to drive the overall growth of renewable energy sources in the next decade. However, Europe is a small and densely populated continent, which results in many countries experiencing a severe shortage of suitable land sites for installing new wind and photovoltaic facilities. This, combined with the fact that many existing wind turbines and photovoltaic units reach the end of their operational lifetime, has laid the groundwork for 'repowering'. Repowering includes upgrading or retrofitting renewable energy sources' components and exploits existing land sites, in which renewables are operating for years. This paper intends to emphasise the multiple dimensions of repowering, also delving in its surrounding socio-economic context in various European countries, to identify its barriers and allies as well as gather best practices and lessons learnt from its implementation. Considering data availability, extent of spatial use and bulk equipment, and consequent attention in literature and practice, the analysis mainly orbits around repowering of wind projects, rather than solar photovoltaics. Finally, the paper presents key directions toward wider future exploitation of repowering. • Land scarcity problem with high renewable energy potential addressed by repowering. • In-depth socio-economic extensions of repowering are discussed. • Semi-quantified evaluation highlighting main implementation pillars of repowering. • Best practices and lessons learnt from the implementation of repowering. • Legislative barriers against the wider implementation of repowering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of demand response (DR) technologies and increasing electricity demand, dynamic pricing has been a popular topic in many countries. This paper evaluates various dynamic pricing programs in the U.S. and Europe, and provides insights into various aspects including risks and rewards, enabling technologies, lower-income groups and customer types surrounding programs such as Time-of-Use (TOU), Critical Peak Pricing (CPP), Peak Time Rebates (PTR) and Real Time Pricing (RTP). We conclude this paper with three main findings: (1) policy coordination in promoting dynamic pricing programs between federal and state regulatory agencies is very critical; (2) customer engagement is very important and can be enhanced via more accessible educational programs and policy adjustments; and (3) more investment in related R&D is required to construct a commonly accepted methodology for measuring the effectiveness of dynamic pricing programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Europe's regulation of passenger car emissions has been proven to have failed when it comes to nitrogen oxide emissions (NO x ) by diesel engines. Due to historical decisions favouring diesel technology, Europe has become a diesel island with no equal worldwide. As a result, virtually every European citizen breathes in air which is deemed harmful to human health. Real driving emissions (RDE) testing by means of portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS) can potentially eliminate the discrepancy between lab and road tests, and will complement the dynamometer type-approval procedure from September 2017 onwards. Despite the significant potential of PEMS testing, the emission assessment has been watered down through politics to provide the automotive manufacturers with additional lead-time. In this way, the lab to road gap is not eliminated but only decreased. This means that diesel cars will continue to over-emit NO x until the 2020s at earliest. This has consequences for effectively bringing down local air quality issues, especially in low emission zones (LEZ). This paper presents a review of the European emission regulation history up to date and makes a comparison with the approach in the other important car markets globally. One can conclude that a substantial update of the European regulatory framework concerning automotive emissions is required, while ambitious post-2021 targets should be set if Europe does not want its automotive industry to lose its competitive position in the global market. In addition, an equilibrium should be sought for between sustainable personal transport in the form of zero-emission vehicles (ZEV), and a sustainable economic climate for the automotive industry. The former is needed if LEZs are to effectively bring down pollutant levels in cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to advance a model able to explain the synchronization tendency in energy consumption, under the impact of international technology transfers. The key argument is related to the differences in energy consumption efficiency of local and foreign technologies. One direct testable consequence of the model is that there might be a certain correlation between the energy consumption between countries and/or economic areas where a free movement of capital goods and technologies takes place. Hence, it is further tested, in the framework of a multivariate spectrum analysis, the case of energy consumption synchronization between Europe and, respectively, United States and Japan for a time span between 1981 and 2011 based on the data provided by U.S. Energy Information Administration. There are evidences of a leading behavior of energy consumption in United States and Japan in respect to Europe as well as of short-run phase delays of 2 up to 5 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: According to IEA estimates, about 19% of the electricity used in the world is for lighting loads with a slightly smaller fraction used in the European Union (14%). Lighting was the first service offered by electric utilities and still continues to be one of the largest electrical end-uses. Most current lighting technologies can be vastly improved, and therefore lighting loads present a huge potential for electricity savings. Solid State Lighting (SSL) is amongst the most energy-efficient and environmentally friendly lighting technology. SSL has already reached a high efficiency level (over 276lm/W) at ever-decreasing costs. Additionally the lifetime of LED lamps is several times longer than discharge lamps. This paper presents an overview of the state of the art SSL technology trends. SSL technology is evolving fast, which can bring many advantages to the lighting marketplace. However, there are still some market barriers that are hindering the high cost-effective potential of energy-efficient lighting from being achieved. This paper presents several strategies and recommendations in order to overcome existing barriers and promote a faster penetration of SSL. The estimated savings potential through the application of SSL lighting systems in the European Union (EU) is around 209TWh, which translates into 77 million tonnes of CO2. The economic benefits translate into the equivalent annual electrical output of about 26 large power plants (1000MW electric). Similar impacts, in terms of percentage savings, can be expected in other parts of the World. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper presents, on the basis of international statistical data available and own research, the development of hydroenergetics in the world over the period 1995–2011. The energy of flowing water for a number of centuries has been an alternative to energy from fossil fuels. Hydropower can be regarded as a relatively non-invasive to the surrounding environment especially in the form of small hydropower stations, what resulted in great popularity of this segment of the green-energy sector. Next the work presents, in tabular charts, graphs and descriptive parts, the levels of utilization of hydroelectric resources for individual continents and countries. Against this background, the paper describes Polish experiences and plans concerning hydropower. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Incentivizing development and deployment of renewable energy sources (RES), but also other low carbon technologies (LCT), has been a successful way of promoting new technologies by creating a feasible investment case and making them competitive with traditional energy sources. Although different incentive mechanisms exist, feed-in tariffs have shown to be the best model for accelerating LCT development guaranteeing producers preferential prices for the produced electricity over a period of time and enabling them access to the power network to sell/inject produced electricity. Due to these benefits, feed-in tariff models are the most common model for stimulating RES integration in southeast Europe. The paper reviews the current state of preferential tariffs for RES in countries of southeast Europe. While some countries already have significant installed RES capacity, others are still in the planning stage. The review shows that the amount of installed capacity of a specific technology has a strong impact on the support for the future projects for same technology. This comprehensive review of legislative development supporting RES, as well as technologies preferred in different countries of the region, is supported with feasibility assessment of investing in RES using the example of two different technology projects, wind and photovoltaic, analysing the impact of the current tariffs on the return on investment for each country of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews European land and bioenergy potential studies to 1) identify shortcomings related to how they account for agricultural intensification and its associated environmental effects, and sustainability constraints, and 2) provide suggestions on how these shortcomings can be improved in future assessments. The key shortcomings are: The environmental impacts of intensification are nearly always ignored in the reviewed studies, while these impacts should be accounted for if intensification is required to make land available for energy cropping. Future productivity developments of crops and livestock, and the associated land-use and environmental effects are currently limited to conventional intensification measures whereby the proportion between inputs and outputs is fixed. Sustainable intensification measures, which increase land productivity with similar or lower inputs, are ignored in the reviewed studies. Livestock productivity developments, livestock specific intensification measures and their environmental effects are poorly or not at all covered in the reviewed studies. Most studies neglect sustainability constraints other than GHG emissions in the selection of energy crops. This includes limitations to rainfed energy crop cultivation, a minimum number of crop species, the structural diversity within cropping areas and the integration of energy crops in existing or new crop rotations, while simultaneously considering the effects on subsequent crops. These shortcomings suggest that the identification of sustainable pathways for European bioenergy production requires a more integrative approach combining land demand for food, feed and energy crop production, including different intensification pathways, and the consequent direct and indirect environmental impacts. A better inclusion of management practices into such approach will improve the assessment of intensification, its environmental consequences and the sustainable bioenergy potential from agricultural feedstocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of cities and their commitment to meet the European targets on energy and climate has steadily increased in the latest years as testified by the large number of ambitious initiatives undertaken by European cities to face multiple challenges towards sustainability. Many projects and initiatives have arisen all around Europe to support cities in the achievement of the Europe 2020 targets of smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. RE-SEEties “Towards resource-efficient urban communities in SEE” is one of the projects funded under the South East Europe program aimed to enhance the policy-making and strategic planning competences of municipalities in the field of energy efficiency, renewable energy sources and waste valorization. This paper focuses on the methods developed and the main results achieved in the framework of RE-SEEties. The main focus is on the eight partner cities (The Local Government of Budapest District 18 – Hungary/HU, Municipality of Aigaleo – Greece/EL, Municipality of Potenza – Italy/IT, City of Nitra – Slovakia/SK, City of Skopje – Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia/FYROM, City of Miercurea Ciuc – Romania/RO, Municipality of Ptuj – Slovenia/SI, City of Ivanić-Grad – Croatia/HR) and how they were assisted by professional institutions in translating their commitments towards resource efficiency into Local Strategies and Action Plans. A critical comparison of these final results points out differences and similarities in the state-of-the-art of cities across South East Europe as well as a the level of ambition and difficulties faced to turn into resource efficient urban communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Biomass is one of the major sources of renewable energy in the World. This paper aims at observing primary biomass energy supply in some EU countries within periods1971–2009 and 1982–2009. Following related two panel data sets for biomass in EU, this work employs linear models and nonlinear threshold autoregression (TAR) models to test linearity against nonlinearity and nonstationarity against stationarity. If nonlinearity is found, then, the next step is to search transition variable and threshold value of the panel data sets. This paper eventually has the purpose to reveal if EU countries converge in the production of biomass in a linear form or nonlinear form. Findings show that panel of Austria, Denmark, Finland, France and Portugal follows nonlinear process and reaches partial convergence in per million primary solid biomass energy supply. However, the involvement of Belgium, Greece, Norway, Poland and Sweden to the panel yields linearity and divergence. One may suggest policy makers of EU and/or OECD, upon conclusion of this paper, to revise their energy policies to stimulate both production and consumption of biomass energy source. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Buildings account for almost half of energy consumptions in European countries and energy demand in building continues to grow worldwide. Fossil fuels are finite reserves. Impacts of peak oil will be perceived soon or later in the next decades. The scale of the challenge in reducing fossil fuel dependency in the built environment is vast and will require a dramatic increase in skills and awareness amongst the construction professions. Building refurbishment towards zero carbon is established itself as one critical aspect to decouple from fossil fuels and tackle with future energy crisis. However, it is a very complex phenomenon cuts across disciplines. This paper categorises a range of technologies for building refurbishment in a sequential manner. A hierarchical process with embedded techniques (insulations, energy efficient equipment and micro-generation) is presented in this paper as a pathway towards zero-carbon building refurbishment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: For many, the supergrid is seen as the solution that allows the massive integration of renewable energy sources in the European power system. It connects different remote energy sources to the existing grid while offering additional control. It offers balancing through geographic spread and allows a more diversified energy portfolio. In the meanwhile it increases the security of supply. However, technical limitations exist, and it is not yet possible to construct such a supergrid. Several outstanding issues need to be solved. This paper first describes the potential and need for a supergrid. The paper focuses on a meshed, multi-terminal VSC HVDC, and it is explained why this relatively new technology is believed to be the best suitable one for such a grid. The different difficulties or challenges that still exist are addressed. Not only the remaining technical limitations are addressed, but also the techno-economic, control and operational issues are discussed, as well as some regulatory obstacles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Restrictions on CO2 emissions, the nuclear phase-out announced by some member states, high emissions from coal-fired power plants, and barriers to rapid development of renewable generation are factors that make the European Union (EU) highly dependent on natural gas. With three non-EU countries (Russia, Algeria and Norway) currently supplying more than half the gas consumed within the EU and with projections pointing out that by 2030 internal sources will only be able to meet 25% of demand, the EU desperately looks for means to secure new sources of gas supply. In this context, the Nabucco pipeline is planned to deliver gas from Caspian and Middle East regions to the EU market. It runs across Turkey and then through Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary before connecting with a major gas hub in Austria. On paper, Nabucco project makes perfect sense, offering a new export route to the EU markets for Caspian gas producers (Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan) as well as Iran and, in time, Iraq. The project is backed by the EU and strongly supported by the United States. Perhaps most importantly, Nabucco would completely bypass Russia. This paper addresses issues surrounding Nabucco project and their implications for the European gas security. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Despite major policy and marketing efforts, the uptake of microgeneration technologies in most European countries remains low. Whereas most academic studies and policy reports aim to identify the underlying reasons why people buy these new technologies, they often fail to assess the general level of consumer awareness. The process of adopting an innovation, however, shows that awareness is a prerequisite which needs to be understood before adoption can be addressed. This paper takes a closer look at awareness of microgeneration and presents the results from a nationally representative study conducted in the Republic of Ireland. Findings from logistic regressions clearly indicate that awareness varies significantly between the individual technologies and customer segments. The paper concludes with implications for policy makers and marketers aiming to promote microgeneration technologies in consumer markets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy demand continues to increase in turn raising concerns about energy supply. In this paper, the author has tried to systematize the role of the energy sector in South Eastern (SE) Europe in the context of the European energy policy process. This should make the energy sector in SE Europe more visible and open to substantial activities and appropriate funding. This is important to assure its full alignment with the European energy policy process, and in so doing, make it less fragile. According to the SE European Energy Community Treaty, parties to the Treaty are obliged to implement reforms in the energy and environmental sector in accordance with the European Union''s respective policy. This paper raises awareness of the environmental requirements that have been set, of renewable energy and its implementation, at the same time pointing out that the response in SE Europe has been at a low level. It is believed that this paper could draw attention to the existing problems and could contribute to the establishment of a common integrated energy market in SE Europe and the EU. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The paper aims to address the potential of low-carbon and renewable hydrogen in decarbonizing the European energy system; specifically, reducing emissions by 55% in 2030 compared to 1990, and targeting net-zero emissions by 2050. The methodology relies on a cost-optimization modelling approach using three models complementarily: a detailed European TIMES-type model (MIRET-EU); an aggregated model for the European energy system, allowing endogenous cost reductions based on technology deployment in a dynamic programming formulation for investment strategies (Integrate Europe); and a dedicated model for assessing hydrogen import options for Europe (HyPE). Two policy-relevant scenarios have been developed: Technology Diversification (TD) and Renewable Push (RP). Both lead to climate neutrality in Europe in 2050 but the RP scenario differs by setting new reinforced targets for renewable technologies in Europe. Results show that hydrogen production would increase sharply in the coming decades, exceeding 30 million tons (Mt) by 2030 and more than 100 Mt by 2050 in both scenarios. Polyvalence of hydrogen in decarbonizing the European energy system for certain hard-to-abate energy uses in transport and industry is also observed. European hydrogen production relies on a diverse mix including both renewable and low-carbon technologies. It is complemented by hydrogen imports from neighboring regions, that represent between 10 and 15% of total demand in 2050. Access to existing cross-border pipelines is a critical advantage compared to maritime transport. Notably, there are considerable cost reductions due to technology deployment for solar power and hydrogen production by electrolyzers. • European hydrogen demand could exceed 100 million tons per year by 2050. • 15% of H 2 needed to reach carbon neutrality could be imported from outside Europe. • More than half of H 2 is used for transport, the rest is dominated by industry. • 1800 GW of solar and wind power is needed for the roll-out of renewable hydrogen. • Resilience of natural gas in European energy transition by 2050 with uptake of CCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to reach Europe׳s 2020 and 2050 targets in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, geothermal resources will have to contribute substantially to meeting carbon-free energy needs. However, public opinion may prevent future large-scale application of deep geothermal power plants, because induced seismicity is often perceived as an unsolicited and uncontrollable side effect of geothermal development. In the last decade, significant advances were made in the development of models to forecast induced seismicity, which are either based on catalogues of induced seismicity, on the underlying physical processes, or on a hybrid philosophy. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of the existing approaches applied to geothermal contexts. This overview will outline the advantages and drawbacks of the different approaches, identify the gaps in our understanding, and describe the needs for geothermal observations. Most of the forecasting approaches focus on the stimulation phase of enhanced geothermal systems which are most prone to generate seismic events. Besides the statistical models suited for real-time applications during reservoir stimulation, the physics-based models have the advantage of considering sub-surface characteristics and estimating the impact of fluid circulation on the reservoir. Hence, to mitigate induced seismicity during major hydraulic stimulations, application of hybrid methods in a decision support system seems the best available solution. So far, however, little attention has been paid to geochemical effects on the failure process and to production periods. Quantitative modelling of induced seismicity still is a challenging and complex matter. Appropriate resources remain to be invested for the scientific community to continue its research and development efforts to successfully forecast induced seismicity in geothermal fields. This is a prerequisite for making this renewable energy resource sustainable and accessible worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pumped hydro energy storage (PHS) currently is the only electricity grid storage technology with substantial deployment throughout the world, representing over 99% of storage capacity, but other storage technologies such as batteries are increasingly finding application. In Europe, the implementation of storage systems is expected to increase because of the integration of intermittent, nondispatchable renewable energy sources. Nevertheless, there is no overview available of the power and energy ratings of large-scale stationary storage at the supranational level. In the absence of officially collected statistics on energy capacity, publicly available information is collected from storage owners, freely accessible databases, scientific articles, reports, brochures and government websites. The status of PHS and other large-scale storage technologies in the EU-28 countries, supplemented by Norway and Switzerland, is presented. First, this paper defines a measure of energy storage capacity, to allow comparison of pumped hydro storage plants with other storage technologies. Next, a set of technical parameters of current large-scale storage plants is presented, as well as an overview of planned storage projects. The estimate of PHS power ratings in the EU-28 exceeds previous estimates, with a total of 160 plants and 45.283 GW rated power in turbine mode and a full cycle storage capacity of 602 GWh. When adding Norway and Switzerland, a total of 188 operational PHS plants is shown with 1313 GWh. The data is used to obtain EU-wide discharge curves and national indicators of utilization and significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of biomass has become a common technology used in many European nations and is receiving increased attention in other nations. The chief attraction of AD is it generates renewable energy. Yet it also manages and treats organic waste, recycles key nutrients to soil, and can create local jobs; making AD an attractive technology to governments. In this paper we review the role government policy has played in promoting AD use and driving its growth in five developed nations studied; Australia, Denmark, Germany, the UK and USA. These nations were chosen for review as they provide a breadth of AD use with the number of AD plants in the aforementioned nations totaling 78, 114, 9545, 265, and 1497. This review looks to demonstrate and discuss policy mechanisms introduced by each nation that has helped drive AD use, and identify areas where policy can help overcome enduring challenges that face the AD industry. Focused discussion is given to waste management, climate change and energy security policies, and to financial incentives made available to AD installations. Analysis shows that the impact of performance based incentives targeted at small-medium capacity AD plants, less than 500 kW, have a significant positive correlation with the growth of AD use in the UK and Germany. The relatively new AD industry faces a number of barriers, which are also discussed, but with the help of supportive government policy for the technology, that considers the wide-ranging benefits of AD across government portfolios; investors will be more likely to show interest in the developing AD industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste from Electric and Electronic Equipments (WEEEs) is currently considered to be one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world, with an estimated growth rate going from 3% up to 5% per year. The recycling of Electric or electronic waste (E-waste) products could allow the diminishing use of virgin resources in manufacturing and, consequently, it could contribute in reducing the environmental pollution. Given that EU is trying, since the last two decades, to develop a circular economy based on the exploitation of resources recovered by wastes, a comprehensive framework supporting the decision-making process of multi-WEEE recycling centres will be analysed in this paper. An economic assessment will define the potential revenues coming from the recovery of 14 e-products (e.g. LCD notebooks, LED notebooks, CRT TVs, LCD TVs, LED TVs, CRT monitors, LCD monitors, LED monitors, cell phones, smart phones, PV panels, HDDs, SSDs and tablets) on the base of current and future disposed volumes in Europe. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis will be used to test the impact of some critical variables (e.g. price of recovered materials, input materials composition, degree of purity obtained by the recycling process, volumes generated, and percentage of collected waste) on specific economic indexes. A discussion of the economic assessment results shows the main challenges in the recycling sector and streamlines some concrete solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing the share of renewable energy is deemed essential to reduce the carbon intensity of the current electricity mix. The promotion of renewable energy technologies should thus be as effective and efficient as possible. Therefore, support schemes should explicitly consider the balance between demand-pull (e.g. production subsidies) and supply-push efforts (public RD&D investments). In this paper we estimate the deployment costs for renewable generation technologies between 2005 and 2030 in the EU-27. Then, we relate our findings to public RD&D expenditures (2005–2010) on these technologies. Based on several “lags” between RD&D spending and market impact, we obtained cumulative pull/push ratios between 100 and 190 for wind technologies and between 80 and 210 for PV. For solid biomass, pull/push ratios are lower, in a range of 60–120. The imbalance for biogas is much larger; the cumulative pull/push ratio for biogas is about 700 in the ‘5 year lag’ case and about 1200 in the other cases (10 yr. lag or more). Although the debate on optimal RD&D efforts is not conclusive and very sector-specific, it is relevant to compare our findings to average pull/push ratios of about 20 in the engineering sector. Overall, we can safely conclude that European governments should critically evaluate current renewables subsidy schemes, and increase public RD&D investments to support next waves of renewable energy technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy sector provides fuel for much of everyday life, particularly economically and socially. Fighting against the COVID-19 pandemic, a well-functioning and resilient energy sector is vital for maintaining the operation of critical infrastructures, including, most importantly, the health sector, and timely economic recovery. Notwithstanding its importance in everyday life and crises, the energy sector itself is currently in a complex and far-reaching transformation to combat climate change whilst supporting the transition to a low-carbon economy and society, mainly through the development of variable renewable energy sources (RES) such as wind and solar photovoltaics. This paper highlights the need for energy resilience as countries face the triple challenge of the COVID-19 health crisis, the consequent economic crisis, and the climate crisis. Focusing on Europe, it is advanced here that with the ability to balance fluctuating electricity generation and demand, flexibility allows the energy sector to utilise low-carbon RES reliably, ensuring a more resilient and sustainable energy future. This paper derives five urgent policy recommendations for Europe that address possible impacts of COVID-19 on the economic and societal prerequisites for flexibility in energy systems. • Considers the COVID-19 pandemic as an instigator for change. • Highlights the importance of flexibility for resilient energy systems. • Derives five policy recommendations concerning flexibility in energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing needs to develop power systems towards more environmentally friendly technologies with respect to climate change in conjunction with the continuous evolution of the respective market conditions is leading to a transition away from the traditional system operation. The upcoming challenges have motivated the development of an increasing number of models for transmission grids. Nevertheless, the high complexity of such models renders it exceedingly difficult to compare their results as well as any corresponding conclusions. In this paper, we develop an open framework to compare a variety of pan-European transmission grid models with a strong focus on the German power system. The comparison is performed in both a qualitative and quantitative manner, depending on the investigated modeling aspect including input data, methods, system boundaries and results. The quantitative model comparison is done by performing harmonized model experiments, one for 2016 as back testing and one for 2030 for analyzing the future system. Core elements of our comparison framework are: We proved that our comparison framework is suitable to make similarities and differences between the different model results visible, e.g. using quadratic heat maps. To ensure transparency and to support the open modeling community, the fact sheets with the model specifications and the database with selected model results are uploaded on the open energy platform. • Development of a novel framework to compare transmission grid models. • Proof of concept for the comparison framework using indicators and visualizations. • Definition and publication of reference data sets for the years 2016 and 2030. • Transparency by publishing the developed factsheets with detailed model specifications. • Support of the open modeling community by using the open energy platform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union has committed itself to ambitious targets of Renewable Energy and bioenergy is expected to play a major role, increasing its contribution to Gross Final Energy Consumption from 2458 PJ in 2005 to 4605 PJ by 2020. Agricultural crop residues are considered a reliable resource for energy uses but important concerns still exist on the potential depletion of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) stocks that may partially offset the environmental suitability and convenience of their large-scale exploitation. This paper provides an estimate of available agricultural residues and related potential energy production obtainable without impacting the EU SOC stock showing how SOC content preservation imposes the application of different collection rates for agricultural residues across the EU, depending on factors such as climate, soil type, current farming practices and pre-existing cultivation history. The results suggest that a potential amount of residues of 146,000 kt/year of dry matter leading to a potential gross energy production of about 2300 PJ/year could be obtained in EU-27 1 1 Excluding Croatia. without impacting the current SOC stocks. Agricultural residues are then theoretically able to provide a substantial contribution to renewable energy targets in several EU-27 countries as well as accommodating competitive uses and SOC preservation. Nevertheless, the spatial pattern of results also clearly indicates regions and countries where residues exploitation should be handled with care and current practices on residues collection are risky in term of SOC content. The estimate provided builds on results from previous studies (e.g., Scarlat et al. Waste Manage 2010;30:1889–1897, Monforti et al. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2013;19:666–677) and on the analysis of future scenarios of SOC content obtained from an innovative pan-EU modelling platform (Lugato et al. Global Change Biol 2014;20:313–326. doi:10.1111/gcb.12292. Such an integrated approach, making use of soil, climate and energy transformation modelling, is unique and constitutes a substantial applied value for assessing the sustainability of crop residues use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to review the combinations of RES-E support instruments in the European Union (EU), using different sources of data. It is shown that combinations are indeed a widespread phenomenon in the EU Member States. Not much attention has been paid to the combinations of primary instruments with other secondary instruments for the same renewable energy technology. It is found that the most frequent mixes of instruments are between feed-in laws (feed-in tariffs, and increasingly feed-in premiums), on the one hand, and investment subsidies, soft loans and tax incentives on the other. In a broad sense, the policy mix between primary and secondary instruments has experienced some changes over the last decade, mostly related to changes in the primary instruments themselves. Exclusion (i.e., ineligibility to apply for an instrument when the RES-E generator is already being financially supported by another instrument) and explicit coordination of support under primary and secondary instruments do not seem to be common elements in these policy combinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper introduces a transparent methodology to assess new suitable locations for mini and small hydro power plants in Europe. The expansion of hydro electricity production is a policy focus not only in Europe, but in the US (Hydropower Regulatory Efficiency Act of 2013) and in the developing world as well. The analysis of the technical potential points out the exact geographical locations and their corresponding capacities instead of only a theoretical potential; therefore it can serve as a reference for the policy debate over the sustainable management of water resources. This debate is reflected already in two major European policies: the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC) and the RES Directive (2009/28/EC) on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources. As both policies have major influence on the priorities of water use, it is important to identify water management practices capable of accommodating sustainable energy purposes while maintaining water quality objectives at the same time. As the WFD poses limitation on the further expansion of large scale hydro options in the European water bodies, the present study focuses on local mini and small hydropower options and their suitability mapping. The presented, geographically explicit method is based on geospatial analysis and the results can contribute to the prioritization of potential hydro power sites in order to improve water quality and its use for energy simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to the development of renewable energy innovation metrics through an exploration of innovation patterns across the European countries in 2010. The identified localized innovation capabilities describe the health of the wind, solar and bioenergy sectors, highlighting a concentrated RES innovation activity within four countries: Germany, France, United Kingdom and Denmark. The association of technological capabilities along the innovation composite indicators allows the extraction of useful insights of the role of environmental policies on employment and technological change. Briefly, the corporate research investment per patent is lower for wind energy (EUR 0.61 million) and higher for PV and biofuels (approximately EUR 1 million). Important lever of innovation capabilities across Europe is identified within public support to deployment, which provides significant insights in terms of economic efficiency of generation technologies; the investigation finds job ratios which are higher for wind and lower for PV technology. As the evolution of the market drives the patterns of innovation activities for all selected technologies, considerable financial consequences are identified in the context of delocalization of clean technology manufacturers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental change created worldwide interest in investing in renewable energy. Less reliance on fossil fuels would have a substantial influence on investors for alternative energy, especially renewable energy. The literature has concentrated on empirical studies of herding behaviour in finance, but not in renewable energy. This paper fills the gap by investigating herding in renewable energy, using daily closing prices in renewable and fossil fuel energy stock returns in the USA, Europe, and Asia, for March 24, 2000–May 29, 2020, which covers the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) (2007–2009), the coronavirus crises of SARS (2003). And the ongoing COVID-19 (2019–2020) pandemic. The paper shows that: (1) for low extreme oil returns, investors are more likely to display herding in the stock market; (2) for SARS and COVID-19, herding is more likely during extremely high oil returns after the GFC; and (3) herding is more likely during periods of extremely low oil returns during the coronavirus crises. These results suggest that after the GFC, investors are more sensitive to asset losses, so they will be more likely to display herding in the stock market. However, during SARS and COVID-19, investors panic so they may unwisely sell their assets. There are strong cross-sector herding spillover effects from US fossil fuel energy to renewable energy, especially before the GFC, while the US fossil fuel energy market has a significant influence on the Europe and Asia renewable energy returns during COVID-19. During SARS, which was not a pandemic, US fossil fuels only had an impact on US renewable energy returns. • Environmental change has led to investing in renewable energy as an alternative to fossil fuels. • The literature has concentrated on herding behaviour in finance, but not in renewable energy, so this paper investigates herding in renewable energy for the USA, Europe, and Asia, for the period March 24, 2000–May 29, 2020 that covers the GFC, SARS, and COVID-19. • For (1) low extreme oil returns, herding is more likely in the stock market; (2) SARS and COVID-19, herding is more likely during extremely high oil returns after the GFC; and (3) extremely low oil returns during SARS and COVID-19, herding is more likely. • After the GFC, investors are more likely to display herding in the stock market but, during SARS and COVID-19, investors may unwisely sell their assets. • There are strong cross-sector herding spillover effects from US fossil fuel energy to renewable energy, especially before the GFC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a revision of the latest studies on the topic methanation, a multi-stage process where water is first converted into hydrogen in an electrolyzer, which subsequently reacts with carbon dioxide to produce methane. The present and future of the most common water electrolysis technologies is addressed. Critical issues to take into consideration when selecting a carbon dioxide source are evaluated. Chemical and biological approaches, together with photocatalytic configurations are discussed, analyzing pros and cons in all the cases. This paper also highlights the extensive work being done in the development of catalysts capable of selectively converting carbon dioxide into methane, as well as the different reactor configurations that can be used with this aim in any of the available methanation modalities. Relevant power-to-methane plants in Europe have been identified and assessed regarding their location, year of commissioning, capacity, technology for electrolysis and methanation type. Finally, cost issues are analyzed, highlighting economic perspectives of the power-to-methane technologies for the next decades. This document reviews all the key elements associated with the methanation process, revealing which aspects can pave the way for the large-scale implementation of this power generation model. In this sense, the gradual cost reduction of the equipment involved and the continuous increase in the efficiency of the processes are revealed as crucial aspects that can lead to a general implementation of the methanation concept on the way to a low carbon economy. • The latest studies on Power to Methane (PtM) processes are reviewed. • Methanation systems will facilitate the transition to a low-carbon economy. • Flexible operation of PEMEC electrolyzers makes them the best option for PtM plants. • Chemical methanation have the greatest potential to be implemented on a large scale. • Biological methanation is a promising pathway for future energy storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Meeting future policy targets for bioenergy development worldwide poses major challenges for biomass feedstock supply chains in terms of competitiveness, reliability and sustainability. This paper reviews current knowledge on the sustainability of agricultural feedstock supply chains and emphasizes future research needs. It covers annual and perennial feedstocks, and environmental, economic and social aspects. Knowledge gaps and technological options to assess and meet sustainability criteria are reviewed from plot to landscape and global scales. Bioenergy feedstocks present a wide range of dry matter yields, agricultural input requirements and environmental impacts, depending on crop type, management practices, and soil and climate conditions. Their integration into farmers׳ cropping systems poses specific challenges in terms of environmental impacts, but also opportunities for improvements via the use of grass–legume intercropping or residues from biomass conversion processes. Taking into account the spatial distribution of bioenergy crops is paramount to assessing their environmental impacts, in particular, on biodiversity or the food versus energy competition issue. However, few modeling frameworks convey the full complexity of the underlying processes and drivers, whether economic, social or biophysical. In particular, social impacts of bioenergy projects are seldom assessed and there is no methodological consensus. The main research areas identified involve multi-crop and multi-site experiments, along with modeling, to optimize management practices and cropping systems producing bioenergy, possibly on alternative lands and under future climate changes; the design of innovative cropping systems using expert knowledge to ensure suitable integration into farmers׳ cropping systems; the collection of detailed data on the location of bioenergy crops to validate theoretical modeling frameworks and improve sustainability assessment; tackling direct and indirect effects of bioenergy development on land-use changes via coupled economic and agronomical models; investigating the effect of perennial stands on biodiversity in relation to previous land-use and landscape structure; and further developing currently-available methodologies to fully appraise the social implications of bioenergy projects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the past two decades, ground source heat pump (GSHP) system has made good impact on energy saving in the Western and European countries in heating/cooling and industrial applications. Their potential for reduction in CO2 emission has been very well utilized by these countries to contribute to a green environment. In this paper an attempt is made to give an overview about how India can benefit from this technology. The economic growth of India has huge impact on energy and environment of the country. Though Indian building sector is growing in multifold, still there is a demand for electricity to meet the needs of people. Any technology to reduce energy consumption will have great impact on people's life and economy. In this way a study has been carried out to estimate, to what extend the ground source heat pump technology can help India to reduce its energy demand and also save the environment. This study covers 10 provinces of northern part of India which require both heating and cooling. Based on the topography of the states, they are classified into severe winter states and moderate winter states for heating requirement. During winter period the conventional electric heaters consume electricity between 1416 and 7085GW annually and for the same heating load GSHP consumes only 471–1416GW. In summer months the electricity consumed by conventional air conditioner ranges between 5506 and 27,532GW and by GSHP it varies from 4811 to 14,440GW. The annual CO2 emission by the conventional systems used for heating and cooling vary between 5270 and 26,352millionkg of CO2. In the case of GSHP CO2 emission lies between 4022 and 12,071millionkg. It is estimated that by employing GSHP technology India can save annually a minimum electricity of 1639–18,700GW and CO2 emission of 1.3–14.2 million tons. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Offshore wind has the potential of becoming an important pillar of the future European energy system. It can contribute to policy objectives on climate change, energy security, green growth and social progress. However, the large potential of offshore wind does not automatically lead to a large share in future energy systems; neither does the emergent stage of development of the technology. Recent insights in innovation studies suggest that the success chances of technological innovations are, to a large extent, determined by how the surrounding system—the innovation system—is built up and how it functions. In this paper we assess the offshore wind innovation systems of four countries: Denmark, the UK, the Netherlands and Germany with the objective to provide recommendations for strengthening the overall European offshore wind innovation system. We use the Technological Innovation System (TIS) approach to analyse the system in 2011. Based on the analysis we identify a number of challenges that the European offshore wind sector faces. Some of them include: a serious deficiency of engineers; fragmented policies and poor alignment of national regulatory frameworks; cost of the technology and limited grid infrastructure. Since the problems hinder the entire system development we call for a systemic policy instrument that would support the innovation system around this technology and contribute to its wider diffusion in Europe. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a review of the literature on low carbon and low embodied energy materials in buildings. Embodied energy is defined and discussed vs. operating energy of buildings and its growing importance due to the implementation of the Energy Building Performance Directive (EBPD) in Europe as example. The difficulty of measuring embodied energy and the difficulty in comparing published data are highlighted, showing an example of proposed new methodology found in the literature. Relationship between embodied energy and embodied CO2 or CO2 footprint is defined. Different materials defined in the literature as low carbon materials are referred, such as cement and concrete, wood, bricks, rammed earth and sandstone. The review shows the research efforts found in the literature to develop new materials with less embodied energy. Finally, the effect of material substitution in the embodied energy of a building is reviewed in the literature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To meet the goals of the directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings, the building sector in Europe now faces a transition towards more energy efficient buildings. Research and development of new energy solutions and technology will be necessary for the transition and the importance of analyzing building energy performance increases. This paper aims to review and evaluate different methods that are commonly used to analyze energy performance in residential buildings in Nordic countries, primarily in Sweden, Norway and Finland. A short international review of regulations is also included. The goal is to find commonly used methods and possibilities for the future. The introduced methods are summarized, categorized and compared based on their advantages and disadvantages. Although the three Nordic countries have similar climate conditions and building traditions, the review shows relatively large variations in the definitions of energy performance for residential buildings, as well as variations in how measurements and calculations are used in the methods for energy performance analysis. In the conducted review, methods, or parts of methods, are also found to be used. The methods used to analyze energy performance are found to be more similar than the concepts of energy performance itself in the three countries. These aspects may be considered in further work to develop an international policy practice for energy performance of residential buildings in cold climate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy production from anaerobic digestion of organic waste and dedicated digestable biomass is a promising climate change mitigation option. Over the last ten years anaerobic digestion has become established in many European countries. The plants have been developed for renewable energy generation, but also to control the emission of odors from zootechnical farms and to stabilize biomass before its agronomic use. In Italy the subsidies available for power generation from biomass have given rise to renewed interest in biogas, creating new opportunities for the agricultural and livestock sectors. Despite of this, in Southern Italy the manure is highly dispersed over a large number of small-size cattle farms, while power generation facilities are affected by scale economies and the aggregation of input biomass is a major logistic, managing, economic and environmental drawback towards the diffusion of such technologies. In this paper, an investment decision methodology for the assessment of optimal size and feedstock mix of biogas power plants fed by cattle manure and energy crops is presented. The methodology is applied to one of the most promising basins of Puglia region, in Southern Italy, represented by the Municipalities of the Local Action Group “Terra dei Trulli e del Barsento”, Province of Bari. The main factors influencing the profitability of these investments are assessed, with biogas power plant size ranging between 50kW and 1MW, and on the basis of the recently introduced feed-in tariff scheme for such plants (D.M. 6 July 2012). The results show that a high manure recovery rate, the reuse of biogas slurry and the cogeneration options are major key factor for the profitability of the investments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides a geographical assessment of potential bioenergy production in the European Union from residues of eight agricultural crops (wheat, barley, rye, oat, maize, rice, rapeseed and sunflower). The evaluation is geographically explicit at the scale of 1km2 and is based on two main computational steps. In the first step the amount of crop residues resulting from statistical assessment based on the methodology developed by Scarlat et al. [1] have been spatially allocated on the EU-27 1 [1] The EU-27 expression symbolizes the current status of EU enlargements. Further information: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Glossary:EU-27. territory using several auxiliary geospatial layers describing, for example, land cover, expected biomass productivity derived from soil parameters, climatic zones and topographical conditions. In the second step the number of model power plants (i.e., plants with a size of 50MW thermal input and a raw material demand of about 100kt/yr might be conveniently fed with available crop residues was estimated on the basis of two different allocation strategies implying a different grade of optimization. The results show that the estimated crop residue resources in EU-27 could provide fuel for about 850 plants expected to produce about 1500PJ/yr. Mobilization needs for the residues are also estimated, leading to a total amount of 1.5×1012–2×1012 tkm are necessary for the full potential exploitation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]