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We studied daily activity patterns of 19 (7 males and 12 females) adult red deer (Cervus elaphus) by using continuous tracking sessions in Białowieża National Park (BNP), Poland, from 2001 to 2004. Male and female red deer were active throughout the day and night during all seasons, with several peaks in activity during the 24-h period, although both sexes tended to be more active during the day in winter. There were no significant differences between males and females in mean time active (8 h/day for both sexes), mean length of activity bouts (42 min), and mean number of activity bouts (12 bouts/day). Additionally, neither sex showed seasonal differences in hours active, bout length, or number of bouts per day. However, rainfall affected activity of males, whereas ambient temperature and snowfall affected activity of females. Although red deer are sexually dimorphic, which often leads to differences in movements and social groupings, our results suggest that their general activity patterns are influenced less by these sexual differences and more by the constraints of feeding and rumination, daily abiotic factors, and possibly predation risk from wolves (Canis lupus). Red deer in BNP did not exhibit strong bimodal peaks in activity at dawn and dusk as shown in previous studies, likely because strict limits on human activities in BNP allowed red deer to base their activity more on natural factors than on human-related factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reproductive performance of mammalian females depends on a broad set of extrinsic and intrinsic factors. One of the most important attributes for a female ungulate is body condition, which depends on food availability. Forage supply, in turn, is dependent on habitat quality, weather conditions, and animal density. The main objectives of our study, conducted in Augustów, Knyszyn, and Białowieża Forests in northeastern Poland from 2006 to 2011, were to quantify reproductive characteristics of female red deer (Cervus elaphus) and determine factors affecting their fertility. Targeted populations of nonmigratory deer were part of an almost natural system, which included seminatural closed forests, a multispecies ungulate guild, and large carnivores. Red deer in northeastern Poland occurred at relatively low densities and females exhibited good reproductive potential, reflected by high fertility rate, low age at 1st reproduction, and lack of reproductive senescence. Fertility was affected by age and body condition. The positive effect of body mass on female fertility declined with age, while the opposite relationship occurred with mandible fat content-its effect increased with female age. Environmental factors and population density did not affect fertility. Early survival and recruitment of young were high (73% and 52 young per 100 females, respectively). Survival of young increased with age of mother in young and prime-aged females and decreased in older females. Summer weather conditions at the time of the study were stable; therefore, their effect on female fertility was not evident. The negative effects of density dependence, which operate mainly through female body condition in this large ungulate, were weak, resulting in adequate food resources, and high fertility rates and population productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate genetic diversity and the population structure of the European moose ( Alces alces), we analyzed 14 microsatellite loci for 694 samples collected across 16 localities. The highest genetic diversity was detected in Belarus and Russia and the lowest was found in Scandinavia. Two major genetic clusters existed, Scandinavian and continental, and some further spatial structure was detected. There was high concordance between the spatial distribution of microsatellite clusters analyzed in the present study and previously recognized mitochondrial DNA clades of moose. The split of genetic lineages calculated using approximate Bayesian computation ( ABC) occurred at the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum: approximately 29 000 and 28 000 years BP. A range-wide bottleneck detected by ABC took place 1800-1200 years BP, although a more recent decline in moose numbers was also documented in the 18th to early 20th Century. Genetic differentiation in European moose increased with geographical distance, and the Baltic Sea appeared to be a barrier to gene flow. We conclude that isolation in different glacial refugia, postglacial colonization, and declines of range and numbers in Holocene shaped the present pattern of genetic diversity of European moose. Based on genetic divergence and a lack of apparent gene flow, the contemporary Scandinavian and continental subpopulations should be treated as separate management units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present phylogeographic pattern of red deer in Eurasia is not only a result of the contraction of their distribution range into glacial refugia and postglacial expansion, but probably also an effect of replacement of some red deer s.l. mtDNA lineages by others during the last 50 000 years. To better recognize this process, we analysed 501 sequences of mtDNA cytochrome b , including 194 ancient and 75 contemporary samples newly obtained for this study. The inclusion of 161 radiocarbon-dated samples enabled us to study the phylogeny in a temporal context and conduct divergence-time estimation and molecular dating. Depending on methodology, our estimate of divergence between Cervus elaphus and Cervus canadensis varied considerably (370 000 or 1.37 million years BP, respectively). The divergence times of genetic lineages and haplogroups corresponded to large environmental changes associated with stadials and interstadials of the Late Pleistocene. Due to the climatic oscillations, the distribution of C. elaphus and C. canadensis fluctuated in north–south and east–west directions. Some haplotypes dated to pre-Last Glacial Maximum periods were not detected afterwards, representing possibly extinct populations. We indicated with a high probability the presence of red deer sensu lato in south-eastern Europe and western Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of sex and age of individuals, season, and human pressure (both human presence and habitat structure) on spatiotemporal behavior of wild boar (Sus scrofa). Specifically, we compared wild boar behavior under contrasting conditions of human pressure, within the primeval temperate forest of Białowieża (eastern Poland) and the metropolitan area of Cracow (Poland). It was predicted that, compared with the forest, wild boar within the urban area will have smaller home ranges due to restricted space, will show longer daily movements due to patchy resources, and will exhibit increased nocturnal activity and ranging behavior in an attempt to avoid human interference. We used radiotracking data from 35 wild boar. Animals inhabiting the urban area had smaller home ranges, yet covered almost twice as much distance on a daily basis than individuals inhabiting primeval forest. Daily duration of activity was similar in the 2 study areas. However, distribution of activity throughout the day differed considerably. In the urban area wild boar were almost exclusively nocturnal, whereas in the primeval forest wild boar activity was evenly distributed throughout the day. Additionally, in the urban area, activity was strongly associated with traveling speed, whereas in the primeval forest active wild boar moved about to little extent. Seasonal effects were stronger in the primeval forest and affected daily distance traveled, duration of activity, and level of diurnality. This study showed that wild boar can adjust their spatiotemporal behavior to local conditions and this may be one factor explaining recent rapid demographic expansion in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two maternal lineages of bank vole ( Myodes glareolus), the Eastern and the Carpathian, that had originated from different glacial refugia, came to a secondary contact in north-east Poland. We analysed a fragment of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) [cytochrome b (cyt b), 424 bp] from 1038 samples of the species to map the contact zone, estimate the mtDNA diversity of bank vole populations, and analyse if the distribution of the two lineages correlates with environmental variables. We found 89 haplotypes of mtDNA: 36 in the Carpathian lineage, 51 in the Eastern lineage and additionally 2 belonging in the Western lineage. The contact zone between lineages varied in width from 45 to 243 km. Nucleotide diversity and haplotype diversity of cyt b were notably higher in the Carpathian lineage than in the Eastern lineage. There was evidence of demographic and spatial expansion in the Eastern lineage. The spatial distribution of bank vole haplotypes belonging to the Carpathian lineage was positively correlated with the number of plant species associated with the Carpathian refugium and the mean temperature of July. The opposite (negative correlations with these two variables) was found for the Eastern lineage. These factors can be related to the different environmental conditions in which the two lineages survived and which affected the current mtDNA diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing evidence that members of animal groups synchronize their vigilance behavior to minimize predation risk. Because synchronized vigilance deviates from the classical vigilance models, which assume independent scanning, it is important to understand when and why it occurs. We explored vigilance behavior of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in a population subject to spatial variation in human hunting risk and seasonal variation in food availability. Group members synchronized their vigilance behavior. We hypothesized that vigilance synchronization would be context dependent and the trade-off between energy gain and safety would shape the relationship between the degree of vigilance synchronization and group size. We predicted weaker synchronization in large groups under heavy predation risk, due to benefits of numerical dilution, and stronger synchronization in large groups when food is limiting, due to intense food competition. The degree of synchronization decreased with increasing group size in the area where human hunting added another risk factor to the natural predation, pointing at the safety benefits of vigilance synchrony for members of small groups and the role of human-induced risk in shaping vigilance synchrony. We found no relation between vigilance synchrony and group size in a food scarce, winter season. However, low levels of vigilance and its synchronization observed in winter indicated that energy gain was prioritized over safety. Thus, members of wild boar groups can adjust levels of vigilance and its synchronization depending on the forage-risk trade-off set by the ecological context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wolves (Canis lupus) belong to 3 genetically distinct subpopulations despite the absence of topographic barriers limiting dispersal. Based on data on wolf diets from 13 localities and wolf kill remains from a national-scale census, we investigated regional variation in wolf diet in relation to species structure of ungulate communities and spatial genetic differentiation of wolf populations. We also tested if various sources of data on wolf prey (scats and kills) and availability of ungulates (game inventory and harvest) yielded comparable results on prey selection. The main prey of wolves was red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and wild boar (Sus scrq/h). The proportion of main prey in wolf diets increased with prey availability in the community, yet wolves selected red deer, preyed on roe deer proportionally to their relative abundance, and avoided wild boar. Large prey was recorded among kills more often than small prey. Despite similar species structure of ungulate communities throughout Poland, there were significant regional differences in wolf diet, which corresponded to the genetic structure of populations. In northeastern Poland, wolves frequently hunted red deer, roe deer, wild boar, beavers (Castor.fiber), and moose (Alces alces). In eastern Poland, roe deer dominated kills. In southeastern Poland, wolves were strongly specialized on red deer. We propose that prey and habitat specialization of wolves, rather than geographic distance or topographic barriers to dispersal, are responsible for the observed ecological divergence of wolf populations, as reflected in their diet composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]