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In the postgenomics era, comparative genomics have advanced the understanding of evolutionary processes of neuropeptidergic signaling systems. The evolutionary origin of many neuropeptidergic signaling systems can be traced date back to early metazoan evolution based on the conserved sequences. Insect parathyroid hormone receptor (iPTHR) was previously described as an ortholog of vertebrate PTHR that has a well-known function in controlling bone remodeling. However, there was no sequence homologous to PTH sequence in insect genomes, leaving the iPTHR as an orphan receptor. Here, we identified the authentic ligand insect PTH (iPTH) for the iPTHR. The taxonomic distribution of iPTHR, which is lacking in Diptera and Lepidoptera, provided a lead for identifying the authentic ligand. We found that a previously described orphan ligand known as PXXXamide (where X is any amino acid) described in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis has a similar taxonomic distribution pattern as iPTHR. Tests of this peptide, iPTH, in functional reporter assays confirmed the interaction of the ligand-receptor pair. Study of a model beetle, Tribolium castaneum, was used to investigate the function of the iPTH signaling system by RNA interference followed by RNA sequencing and phenotyping. The results suggested that the iPTH system is likely involved in the regulation of cuticle formation that culminates with a phenotype of defects in wing exoskeleton maturation at the time of adult eclosion. Moreover, RNAi of iPTHRs also led to significant reductions in egg numbers and hatching rates after parental RNAi. Author summary: Vertebrate parathyroid hormone (PTH) and its receptors have been extensively studied with respect to their function in bone remodeling and calcium metabolism. Insect parathyroid hormone receptors (iPTHRs) have been previously described as counterparts of vertebrate PTHRs, however, they are still orphan receptors for which the authentic ligands and biological functions remain unknown. We describe an insect form of parathyroid hormone (iPTH) by analyzing its interactions with iPTHRs. Identification of this new insect peptidergic system proved that the PTH system is an ancestral signaling system dating back to the evolutionary time before the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes. We also investigated the functions of the iPTH system in a model beetle Tribolium castaneum by using RNA interference. RNA interference of iPTHR resulted in defects in wing exoskeleton maturation and fecundity. Based on the differential gene expression patterns and the phenotype induced by RNAi, we propose that the iPTH system is likely involved in the regulation of exoskeletal cuticle formation and fecundity in insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: MicroRNAs are now recognized as key post-transcriptional regulators in animal ontogenesis and phenotypic diversity. Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker (Blattaria) is a sexually dimorphic insect, which is also an important source of material used in traditional Chinese medicine. The male E. sinensis have shorter lifecycles and go through fewer instars than the female. Furthermore, the males have forewings, while the females are totally wingless. Results: We used the Illumina/Solexa deep sequencing technology to sequence small RNA libraries prepared from the fourth-instar larvae of male and female E. sinensis. 19,097,799 raw reads were yielded in total: 7,817,445 reads from the female library and 11,280,354 from the male, respectively. As a result, we identified 168 known miRNAs belonging to 55 families as well as 204 novel miRNAs. Moreover, 45 miRNAs showed significantly different expression between the female and the male fourth-instar larvae, and we validated 10 of them by Stem-loop qRT-PCR. Some of these differentially expressed miRNAs are related to metamorphosis, development and phenotypic diversity. Conclusions/Significance: This is the first comprehensive description of miRNAs in E. sinensis. The results provide a useful resource for further in-depth study on molecular regulation and evolution of miRNAs. These findings not only enrich miRNAs for hemimetabolans but also lay the foundation for the study of post-transcriptional regulation on the phenomena of sexual dimorphism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]