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Blockchain creates a secure environment on top of strict cryptographic assumptions and rigorous security proofs. It permits on-chain interactions to achieve trustworthy properties such as traceability, transparency, and accountability. However, current blockchain trustworthiness is only confined to on-chain, creating a “trust gap” to the physical, off-chain environment. This is due to the lack of a scheme that can truthfully reflect the physical world in a real-time and consistent manner. Such an absence hinders further blockchain applications in the physical world, especially for the security-sensitive ones. In this paper, we propose a framework to extend blockchain trust from on-chain to off-chain, and take trustworthy vaccine tracing as an example scheme. Our scheme consists of 1) a Trusted Execution Environment (TEE)-enabled trusted environment monitoring system built with the Arm Cortex-M33 microcontroller that continuously senses the inside of a vaccine box through trusted sensors and generates anti-forgery data; and 2) a consistency protocol to upload the environment status data from the TEE system to blockchain in a truthful, real-time consistent, continuous and fault-tolerant fashion. Our security analysis indicates that no adversary can tamper with the vaccine in any way without being captured. We carry out an experiment to record the internal status of a vaccine shipping box during transportation, and the results indicate that the proposed system incurs an average latency of 84 ms in local sensing and processing followed by an average latency of 130 ms to have the sensed data transmitted to and been available in the blockchain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blockchain technologies can enable secure computing environments among mistrusting parties. Permissioned blockchains are particularly enlightened by companies, enterprises, and government agencies due to their efficiency, customizability, and governance-friendly features. Obviously, seamlessly fusing blockchain and cloud computing can significantly benefit permissioned blockchains; nevertheless, most blockchains implemented on clouds are originally designed for loosely-coupled networks where nodes communicate asynchronously, failing to take advantages of the closely-coupled nature of cloud servers. In this paper, we propose an innovative cloud-oriented blockchain – CloudChain, which is a modularized three-layer system composed of the network layer, consensus layer, and blockchain layer. CloudChain is based on a shared-memory model where nodes communicate synchronously by direct memory accesses. We realize the shared-memory model with the Remote Direct Memory Access technology, based on which we propose a shared-memory consensus algorithm to ensure presistence and liveness, the two crucial blockchain security properties countering Byzantine nodes. We also implement a CloudChain prototype based on a RoCEv2-based testbed to experimentally validate our design, and the results verify the feasibility and efficiency of CloudChain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]