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Examining the relationship between the responses of a number of different cognitive trainings on cognitive functioning in middle-aged and elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment. Randomized controlled experimental studies published publicly from the time of inception to October 30, 2023 were searched through Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane library databases. Traditional and network meta-analyses were performed using Stata 17.0 software. Fifty papers on 4 types of cognitive training were included. Traditional meta-analysis showed that virtual reality training (SMD = 0.53, 95% CI : [0.36,0.70], P = 0.00), neuropsychological training (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI : [0.18,0.70], P = 0.00), cognitive strategy training (SMD = 0.26, 95% CI : [0.16,0.36], P = 0.00), and cognitive behavioral therapy (SMD = 0.25, 95% CI : [0.08,0.41], P = 0.00) all had significant improvement effects on the cognitive function of middle-aged and elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment. Network meta-analysis revealed neuropsychological training as the best cognitive training, and subgroup analysis of cognitive function subdimensions showed that neuropsychological training had the best effects on working memory, lobal cognitive function, memory, and cognitive flexibility improvement. Meanwhile, virtual reality training had the best effects on processing speed, verbal ability, overall executive function, spatial cognitive ability, and attention improvement. Cognitive training can significantly improve the cognitive function of middle-aged and elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment, and neuropsychological training is the best intervention, most effective in interventions lasting more than 8 weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is a shift from a perspective biased towards visual methods to a broader understanding of the multisensory phenomenon known as "sensescape". Yet, the interplay among senses remains underexplored. • There is a lack of a universally agreed-upon definition for certain affects which are often characterized by their longer durations, ambiguity, and irreducibility. • Some functional studies explore attitudes to enhance cycling rates, while identity research emphasizes local context. Identities of cyclists in our sample face marginalization, stigma, disadvantage, and invisibility. • Retrospective surveys and interviews are dominant, but growing interest in mobile methods enhances real-time and context-specific data collection. • The positive values of cycling experiences have been largely ignored in our sample of studies, suggesting that the dominant narrative is still guided by the assumption that mobility is a disutility. When evaluating cycling subjective experiences (CSE), mobility researchers have questioned the depictions of cycling as an efficient, fast, and solitary mobility mode. By reframing cycling in terms of its emotional impact on the cyclist, research to date has explored dimensions such as fun, relaxation, and sociability of cycling experiences. Yet, these insights have not been integrated into a holistic understanding of CSE. Addressing this gap, this paper asks: what is the CSE exactly and how do we measure it? We selected and analysed in-depth 50 articles with the aim of unpacking the innate characteristics of CSE. The paper makes a contribution to the research on CSE by presenting a novel framework that clarifies the relationships within existing literature, and identifies measurement methods aligned with this framework. The three interrelated core aspects of CSE are 1) sensory interpretation, 2) affective states, and 3) cognitive construction. Additionally, the three identified methods are 1) retrospective, 2) interceptive, and 3) mobile methods. Notably, retrospective surveys and interviews emerged as the dominant methods employed in the field. However, there has been a growing interest in mobile methods, which enable the collection of real-time and context-specific data, thereby enhancing the generalizability of research findings. Through our analysis we have found that the positive values of cycling experiences have been largely ignored in our sample of studies, revealing a bias of researchers to focus on mobility as a disutility. Based on our findings, we urge planners and scholars to rethink their implicit efforts to mitigate the negative effects of cycling experiences and look for opportunities to optimize for positive cycling experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comprehension tends to be less effective when reading on screens than on paper, particularly with texts that require a deeper understanding or when reading under time pressure. Recent evidence indicates that digital readers exhibit a tendency towards more shallow or superficial text processing and less metacognitive regulation. Emerging evidence on the reading of dynamic digital texts reaffirms the importance of visual and attentional constraints as per the reading of static texts, but also highlights the critical role played by contextual factors in guiding the use of reading strategies in digital environments. Although readers can develop adaptive reading strategies in response to different conditions, the efficacy of those strategies depends on various cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational factors. People increasingly read text displayed on digital devices, including computers, handheld e-readers, and smartphones. Given this, there is rapidly growing interest in understanding how the cognitive processes that support the reading of static text (e.g., books, magazines, or newspapers) might be adapted to reading digital texts. Evidence from recent experiments suggests a complex interplay of visual and cognitive influences on how people engage with digital reading. Although readers can strategically adjust their reading behaviors in response to their immediate reading context, the efficacy of these strategies depends on cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational factors. A better understanding of the factors that influence reading offers the promise of leveraging digital technologies to enhance the reading experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terms "extended cognition" and the "extended mind" identify two strands of philosophical argument that are commonly subsumed under the general heading of active externalism. The present paper describes an integrated approach to understanding extended cognition and the extended mind—one that papers over the differences between these two, ostensibly distinct, forms of cognitive extension. As an added bonus, the paper describes how active externalism might be applied to the realm of non-cognitive phenomena, thereby yielding an expansion in the theoretical and empirical scope of the active externalist enterprise. Both these points of progress stem from what is called the dispositional hypothesis. According to the dispositional hypothesis, extended cognition occurs when the mechanisms responsible for the manifestation of dispositional properties include components that lie beyond the borders of the thing to which the dispositional properties are ascribed. • A clearer explication of active externalist theses is required. • According to the dispositional hypothesis, cognitive extension occurs when the mechanisms responsible for the manifestation of dispositional properties extend beyond the borders of the entity to which dispositional properties are ascribed. • A consideration of dispositional properties provides the basis for a unified approach to understanding extended cognition and the extended mind. • Active externalism can be applied to phenomena that do not fall within the empirical orbit of cognitive science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In language comprehension, we use perceptual cues to infer meanings. Some of these cues reside on perceptual dimensions. For example, the difference between bear and pear is cued by a difference in voice onset time (VOT), which is a continuous perceptual dimension. The present paper asks whether, and when, experience with a single value on a dimension behaving unexpectedly is used by the learner to reweight the whole dimension. We show that learners reweight the whole VOT dimension when exposed to a single VOT value (e.g., 45 ms) and provided with feedback indicating that the speaker intended to produce a /b/ 50% of the time and a /p/ the other 50% of the time. Importantly, dimensional reweighting occurs only if 1) the 50/50 feedback is unexpected for the VOT value, and 2) there is another dimension that is predictive of feedback. When no predictive dimension is available, listeners reassociate the experienced VOT value with the more surprising outcome but do not downweight the entire VOT dimension. These results provide support for perceptual representations of speech sounds that combine cues and dimensions, for viewing perceptual learning in speech as a combination of error-driven cue reassociation and dimensional reweighting, and for considering dimensional reweighting to be reallocation of attention that occurs only when there is evidence that reallocating attention would improve prediction accuracy (Harmon, Z., Idemaru, K., & Kapatsinski, V. 2019. Learning mechanisms in cue reweighting. Cognition , 189 , 76–88.). • We investigate the learning mechanisms behind perceptual adaptation to a new accent. • Learners experience a single cue residing on a perceptual dimension (voice onset time). • When this would improve prediction accuracy, learners reweight the whole dimension. • Learners also reassociate experienced cues with a priori unexpected outcomes. • Error-driven learning involves both reassociating cues and reweighting dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Reducing modifiable risk factors could prevent the onset of cognitive decline. • Physical multimorbidity–cognitive function association was mediated by depression. • Routine screening for depression in multimorbidity patient may delay dementia onset. This paper explores the role of depressive symptoms (mediator/moderator) in the association between physical multimorbidity (exposure) and cognitive function (outcome) among older adults in the three most populous middle-income countries. This study used cross-sectional data from China (2015 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study), India (2017/2018 Longitudinal Ageing Study in India), and Indonesia (2014/2015 Indonesian Family Life Survey), with a total sample of 73,199 respondents aged ≥ 45 years. Three domains of cognitive tests were harmonised across surveys, including time orientation, word recall, and numeracy. The four-way decomposition analysis assessed the mediation and interaction effects between exposure, mediator/moderator, and outcome, adjusted for covariates. The mean age of the respondents (in years) was slightly younger in Indonesia (56.0, SD = 8.8) than in China (59.5, SD = 9.3) and India (60.0, SD = 10.5). The proportion of male respondents was 49.3 % in China, 47.3 % in India, and 47.5 % in Indonesia. Respondents in China had the highest mean cognitive function z scores (54.7, SD = 19.9), followed by India (51.1, SD = 20.0) and Indonesia (51.0, SD = 18.4). Physical multimorbidity was associated with lower cognitive function in China and India (p < 0.0001), with 48.4 % and 40.0 % of the association explained by the mediating effect of depressive symptoms ('overall proportion due to mediation'). The association was not found in Indonesia. Cognitive functions were lower among individuals with physical multimorbidity, and depressive symptoms mainly explained the association. Addressing depressive symptoms among persons with physical multimorbidity is likely to have not only an impact on their mental health but could prevent cognitive decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resilient system performance in high-stakes settings, which includes the ability to monitor, respond, anticipate, and learn, can be enhanced for trainees through simulation of realistic scenarios enhanced by augmented reality. Active learning strategies can enhance simulation-based training, particularly the mental model articulation principle where students are prompted to anticipate what will happen next and the reflection principle where students self-assess their performance compared to a gold standard expert model. In this paper, we compared simulation-based training for trauma care with and without active learning strategies during pauses in the simulated action for progressively deteriorating patients. The training was conducted online and real-time without a facilitator, with 42 medical students viewing training materials and then immediately taking an online quiz for three types of trauma cases: hemorrhage, airway obstruction, and tension pneumothorax. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control condition in a between-subjects design. We compared performance in the control and experimental conditions based on: A) the proportion of cues correctly recognized, B) the proportion of accurate diagnoses, C) the proportion of appropriate treatment interventions, and D) verbal briefing quality on a 1–5 scale. We found that the training intervention increased recognition of subtle cues critical for accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment interventions; the training did not improve the accuracy of diagnoses or the quality of the verbal briefing. We conclude that incorporating active learning strategies in simulation-based training improved foundational capabilities in detecting subtle cues and intervening to rescue deteriorating patients that can increase the readiness for trainees to contribute to resilient system performance in the high-stakes setting of emergency care in hospitals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with executive function deficits that are improved with medications. However, meta-analyses of stimulant effects on cognition have mostly tested single-dose effects, and there is no meta-analysis of non-stimulant effects. This systematic review and meta-analysis tested the clinically more relevant longer-term effects of Methylphenidate (20 studies; minimum 1 week) and Atomoxetine (8 studies; minimum 3 weeks) on reaction time, attention, inhibition, and working memory, searching papers on PubMed, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, and PsycINFO. The meta-analysis of 18 studies in 1667 subjects showed that methylphenidate was superior to placebo in all cognitive domains with small to medium effect sizes (Hedges g of 0.34–0.59). The meta-analysis of atomoxetine included 7 studies in 829 subjects and showed no effects in working memory, but superior effects in the other domains with medium to large effect sizes (Hedge's g of 0.36–0.64). Meta-regression analysis showed no drug differences on cognitive effects. The meta-analyses show for the first time that chronic Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine have comparable effects of improving executive functions in people with ADHD. • First meta-analysis of chronic medication effects on cognition in ADHD. • Cognitive domains included attention, inhibition, reaction time and working memory. • Chronic methylphenidate improved performance on all cognitive domains. • Chronic Atomoxetine improved performance on all domains except working memory. • Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine had comparable effects on improving cognition in ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The review focuses on Aβ, p-tau, NfL, GFAP, NDEs, and TDP-43 as blood AD biomarkers. • Progress in the area was accelerated in part due to advanced analytic platforms. • Blood biomarkers enable broad initial screening, succeeded by in-depth assessments. • Blood biomarkers can evaluate the impact of AD-modifying treatments. • Equitable diagnosis across socioeconomics is needed to mitigate disparities. The field of blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has advanced at an incredible pace, especially after the development of sensitive analytic platforms that can facilitate large-scale screening. Such screening will be important when more sophisticated diagnostic methods are scarce and expensive. Thus, blood-based biomarkers can potentially reduce diagnosis inequities among populations from different socioeconomic contexts. This large-scale screening can be performed so that older adults at risk of cognitive decline assessed using these methods can then undergo more complete assessments with classic biomarkers, increasing diagnosis efficiency and reducing costs to the health systems. Blood-based biomarkers can also aid in assessing the effect of new disease-modifying treatments. This paper reviews recent advances in the area, focusing on the following leading candidates for blood-based biomarkers: amyloid-beta (Aβ), phosphorylated tau isoforms (p-tau), neurofilament light (NfL), and glial fibrillary acidic (GFAP) proteins, as well as on new candidates, Neuron-Derived Exosomes contents (NDEs) and Transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43), based on data from longitudinal observational cohort studies. The underlying challenges of validating and incorporating these biomarkers into routine clinical practice and primary care settings are also discussed. Importantly, challenges related to the underrepresentation of ethnic minorities and socioeconomically disadvantaged persons must be considered. If these challenges are overcome, a new time of cost-effective blood-based biomarkers for AD could represent the future of clinical procedures in the field and, together with continued prevention strategies, the beginning of an era with a lower incidence of dementia worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modeling reading comprehension processes is a critical task for Learning Analytics, as accurate models of the reading process can be used to match students to texts, identify appropriate interventions, and predict learning outcomes. This paper introduces an improved version of the Automated Model of Comprehension, namely version 4.0. AMoC has its roots in two theoretical models of the comprehension process (i.e., the Construction-Integration model and the Landscape model), and the new version leverages state-of-the-art Large Language models, more specifically ChatGPT, to have a better contextualization of the text and a simplified construction of the underlying graph model. Besides showcasing the usage of the model, the study introduces three in-depth psychological validations that argue for the model's adequacy in modeling reading comprehension. In these studies, we demonstrated that AMoC is in line with the theoretical background proposed by the Construction-Integration and Landscape models, and it is better at replicating results from previous human psychological experiments than its predecessor. Thus, AMoC v4.0 can be further used as an educational tool to, for example, help teachers design better learning materials personalized for student profiles. Additionally, we release the code from AMoC v4.0 as open source in a Google Collab Notebook and a GitHub repository. • Introduce the Automated Model of Comprehension version 4.0 that integrates state-of-the-art Large Language models - ChatGPT. • Perform 3 in-depth psychological validation studies to support the model's adequacy in modeling reading comprehension. • AMoC v4.0 aligns with theoretical frameworks, namely Construction-Integration and Landscape models. • The model outperforms its predecessor and replicates results from human psychological experiments. • AMoC v4.0 can serve as an educational tool for designing personalized learning materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multi-attribute group decision-making (MAGDM) is an analytical decision-making framework which gathers the views of multiple experts, and they often assess alternatives by degree adverbs in realistic scenarios. In order to treat expert opinions well, q-rung orthopair fuzzy sets (q-ROF) emerged as a data disposal tool, however, how to aggregate the information rationally remains a challenge. In this paper, q-ROF evidential reasoning methodology (q-ROF ERM) is proposed to guarantee the functionality in the case of conflicting, extreme information evaluations from experts and attributes. Second, the q-ROF attribute reduction (AR) framework is invented for attribute importance measurement. The flexibility and elegance of the model are boosted by the variation of the λ parameter and its lead to the elimination of redundant attributes. In addition to this, the q-ROF output three-way decision (TWD) framework is created to give the classification and ranking of alternatives. The relative output function derived from fuzzy distance measure and the adjustable utility pursuit coefficient τ afford both objectivity and subjectivity to the program selection, allowing the evaluation outcomes to be relevant to human cognition. Finally, the comparative experiments and sensitivity analyses of the two cases illustrate the scientificity and reliability of the presented framework in the MAGDM scenario. • A q-ROF contradictory information fusion method is proposed. • A similarity attribute reduction with λ method is established for q-ROF weights. • Q-ROF output three-way decision considers the utility pursuit τ is designed. • A q-ROF classification and ranking that fits human psychology is conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every day we trust other individuals as we engage in social interactions in which various desirable outcomes depend on others acting the way we hope, or they have indicated. Trust extends beyond specific individuals, however, as we might trust unknown others – individuals, institutions, corporations, and governments. Some also say that we trust various artifacts, such as machines. But what is the basis of trust, and can we really trust technology? Trust is intimately connected to the notion ethos from the study of rhetoric and human persuasion, which is often used to describe various characteristics of the speaker, the audience, the relationship between the speaker and the audience, and the wider context in which communication and interaction occurs. In this article I explore to what degree machines can be considered to have ethos, and consequently whether ethos is a useful concept for understanding persuasive and credibility-related situations in HMI and by extension key aspects of human-machine trust. This allows us to draw on a long lineage of research from, for example, rhetoric, communication studies, and cognitive and social psychology to better understand the usefulness – or not – of using the notion of trust to describe our relationship with machines. • Trust in machines partly parallels trust in humans, institutions, and artifacts. • Ethos, from rhetoric, relates to credibility and trust in human-machine interaction. • This paper explores if machines can have ethos, and how this relates to trust. • Machine ethos is about perceived credibility and not the machine's ethics. • Examining ethos enriches understanding of trust and design in HMI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper draws a parallel between creative cognition and a multi-armed bandit problem involving learning from experience in an uncertain environment. Special emphasis is put on the optimal sequencing of divergent and convergent behavior by showing that divergence must be inhibited at one point to converge toward creative behavior so that excessive divergence is counterproductive. We test this hypothesis with a behavioral experiment, using measures of individual divergence and convergence components of creative potential in high school students. Results confirmed that a mix of divergence and convergence predicted high performance in a bandit task but not in a purely random task or in a simple repetitive task. These predictions are maintained after controlling for sex, personality, incentives, and other factors. As hypothesized, creative cognition was necessary for high performance under the appropriate conditions. However, it was not necessary to get high grades in a traditional school system. Relating to the goal of educators and public policies in the 21st century to make children and adolescents more creative, and schools more receptive to creative thinking, this research focuses on the creative potential and behavior of high school students. It provides an evidence-based policy argument in support of the screening and development by the educational sector of the creative potential of students. • We draw a parallel between creative cognition and the multi-armed bandit problem. • Divergence (exploration) must be inhibited at one point to converge toward creative behavior. • Adolescents with a high creative potential behave optimally as efficient explorers and convergers. • Creative cognition is necessary for high performance in these tasks. • Creative cognition was not necessary to get high grades in a traditional school system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural human behavior arises from continuous interactions between the cognitive and motor domains. However, assessments of cognitive abilities are typically conducted using pen and paper tests, i.e., in isolation from "real life" cognitive-motor behavior and in artificial contexts. In the current study, we aimed to assess cognitive-motor task performance in a more naturalistic setting while recording multiple motor and eye tracking signals. Specifically, we aimed to (i) delineate the contribution of cognitive and motor components to overall task performance and (ii) probe for a link between cognitive-motor performance and pupil size. To that end, we used a virtual reality (VR) adaptation of a well-established neurocognitive test for executive functions, the 'Color Trails Test' (CTT). The VR-CTT involves performing 3D reaching movements to follow a trail of numbered targets. To tease apart the cognitive and motor components of task performance, we included two additional conditions: a condition where participants only used their eyes to perform the CTT task (using an eye tracking device), incurring reduced motor demands, and a condition where participants manually tracked visually-cued targets without numbers on them, incurring reduced cognitive demands. Our results from a group of 30 older adults (>65) showed that reducing cognitive demands shortened completion times more extensively than reducing motor demands. Conditions with higher cognitive demands had longer target search time, as well as decreased movement execution velocity and head-hand coordination. We found larger pupil sizes in the more cognitively demanding conditions, and an inverse correlation between pupil size and completion times across individuals in all task conditions. Lastly, we found a possible link between VR-CTT performance measures and clinical signatures of participants (fallers versus non-fallers). In summary, performance and pupil parameters were mainly dependent on task cognitive load, while maintaining systematic interindividual differences. We suggest that this paradigm opens the possibility for more detailed profiling of individual cognitive-motor performance capabilities in older adults and other at-risk populations. • We developed a virtual reality version of the color trails test with eye tracking. • Increased cognitive task load induced longer completion times and longer search times. • Higher load induced slower hand movements and reduced head-hand coordination. • Task performance scores were correlated with individual pupil sizes. • Test measurements corresponded to fall risk in older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caffeine has been shown to benefit physical aspects of different sports. In this paper, we aimed to understand the effects of caffeine on decision-making and the accuracy of soccer passes. Twelve young soccer players (16–17 years old and 20.8 ± 2.7 kg/m2 BMI) completed the tasks once after taking 3 mg/kg body mass of caffeine (CAF) and once after consuming similar amounts of placebo (PLA). For the decision-making task, participants were asked to determine the best outcome of ten simulated pre-recorded soccer events. For the soccer pass accuracy, participants performed five short- (10 m) and five long passes (30 m), as well as the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test. Although not statistically significant, participants were 1.67 % more accurate in short- and 13.48 % more accurate in long passes when they consumed caffeine compared to the placebo (14.67 ± 2.74 vs. 14.50 ± 2.97, p = 0.34, g = 0.27 and 7.50 ± 2.84 vs. 6.83 ± 3.13, p = 0.60, g = 0.14, respectively). However, participants' decision-making was 7.14 % and LSPT scores were 3.49 % lower when they consumed caffeine compared to the placebo (29.50 ± 3.09 vs. 30.67 ± 2.93, p = 0.28, g = −0.30 and 55.38 ± 11.91 vs. 57.48 ± 12.13, p = 0.08, g = −0.51 respectively). In conclusion, while the short pass accuracy remained consistent among almost all participants before and after caffeine consumption, the performance varied in the case of long passes. Moreover, most of the participants scored lower on decision-making and LSPT after consuming caffeine. This may suggest that more complex tasks with a higher number of passes might negatively be affected by low doses of caffeine ingested one hour before playing soccer. Future studies are required to elucidate the effects of caffeine consumption on distinct cognitive and passing tasks. • Despite no statistical differences, caffeine appeared to negatively impact on decision-making skills in young soccer players. • While short pass accuracy remained consistent, long pass performance varied with caffeine intake in participants. • More complex tasks with higher number of passes might be negatively affected by the lower doses of caffeine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simultaneously extracting junctions and their corresponding line segments from images presents a promising approach to structural environment cognition. However, conventional methods employ square convolution for line feature extraction, resulting in the exclusion of long-range dependencies and the generation of suboptimal wireframe predictions. In this paper, we introduce an efficient and concise parsing method named Structural Asymmetric Convolution-based Wireframe Parser (SACWP). Taking advantage of the inherent similarities between structural asymmetric convolution and the predominant distribution of line segments in man-made environments, we propose a Structural Asymmetric Convolution module (SAC) that captures long-range contextual features while efficiently filtering out irrelevant information from neighboring pixels. Additionally, we introduce a feature aggregation module based on dilated convolution (DCFA) to seamlessly integrate contextual information from multiple receptive fields. We thoroughly evaluate our approach on the Wireframe and YorkUrban datasets, achieving preferable results of 69.3% and 29.7% msAP respectively. On the other hand, the promising results adequately demonstrate the effectiveness of SACWP to Wireframe Parsing task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Forward testing effect confound in cued-recall tasks investigating the testing effect. • Dual-memory model predictions hold even with the forward testing effect confound. • Cued-recall designs with confound have different cumulative distribution shapes. • We advance a theoretical account of the forward testing effect. Recall from episodic memory has been shown to enhance both memory for the retrieved information (e.g., relative to a restudy control condition; the testing effect, or TE) and memory for different, subsequently studied materials (the forward testing effect, or FTE). Hence, the TE may be subject to an FTE confound when training in a TE experiment involves either testing prior to restudy or when restudied and tested items are randomly mixed. Across two cued-recall TE experiments, we show that (1) a potent FTE confound exists in the test-first but not the mixed training design, (2) there are no other evident learning related interactions between restudied and tested items across three frequently used training phase task orderings, and (3) the predictions of the dual-memory model of test-enhanced learning – which posits that a test trial creates a memory that is separate from the initially encoded study memory, yielding two routes to retrieval for tested items – are held both when there is and is not a confounding FTE. Further, our results yielded no evidence for two accounts of the FTE (the proactive interference and reset of encoding hypotheses) as applied to cued recall but are consistent with two alternative accounts (the strategy change and increasing effort hypotheses). Through distribution analyses we identify a novel and potent FTE individual differences effect that can be accommodated by the latter accounts. Finally, we show that at least three large- n studies exploring individual differences in the TE are confounded by the FTE, compromising conclusions in those papers about the efficacy of the TE across individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A range of studies published in the last few decades promotes the cognitive aspects of life: all organisms, from bacteria to mammals, are capable of sensing/perception, decision-making, problem-solving, learning, and other cognitive functions, including sentience and consciousness. In this paper I present a scientific and philosophical synthesis of these studies, leading to an integrated view of cognitive biology. This view is expressed through the four principles applicable to all living systems: (1) sentience and consciousness, (2) autopoiesis, (3) free energy principle and relational biology, and (4) cognitive repertoire. The principles are circular, and they reinforce themselves. The circularity is not rigid, meaning that hierarchical and heterarchical shifts are widespread in the biosphere. The above principles emerged at the dawn of life, with the first cells, bacteria and archaea. All biogenic forms and functions that emerged since then can be traced to the first cells – indivisible units of biological agency. Following these principles, I developed the concept of biocivilisations to explain various forms of social intelligence in different kingdoms of life. The term biociviloisations draws on the human interpretation of the concept of civilisation, which searches for non-human equivalents of communication, engineering, science, medicine, art, and agriculture, in all kingdoms of life by applying the principles of cognitive biology. Potential avenues for testing the concept of biocivilisations are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]