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An HIV-1 infection progresses in most human individuals sooner or later into AIDS, a devastating disease that kills more than a million people worldwide on an annual basis. Nonetheless, certain HIV-1-infected persons appear to act as long-term non-progressors, and elite control is associated with the presence of particular MHC class I allotypes such as HLA-B"27 or -B"57. The HIV-1 pandemic in humans arose from the cross-species transmission of SIVcpz originating from chimpanzees. Chimpanzees, however, appear to be relatively resistant to developing AIDS after HIV-1/SIVcpz infection. Mounting evidence illustrates that, in the distant past, chimpanzees experienced a selective sweep resulting in a severe reduction of their MHC class I repertoire. This was most likely caused by an HIV-1/SIV-like retrovirus, suggesting that chimpanzees may have experienced long-lasting host-virus relationships with SIV-like viruses. Hence, if natural selection is allowed to follow its course, prospects for the human population may look grim, thus underscoring the desperate need for an effective vaccine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a key model of genetic polymorphism. Selection pressure by pathogens or other microevolutionary forces may result in a high rate of non-synonymous substitutions at the codons specifying the contact residues of the antigen binding sites (ABS), and the maintenance of extreme MHC allelic variation at the population/species level. Therefore, selection forces favouring MHC variability for any reason should cause a correlated evolution between substitution rates and allelic polymorphism. To investigate this prediction, we characterised nucleotide substitution rates and allelic polymorphism (i.e. the number of alleles detected in relation to the number of animals screened) of several Mhc class II DRB lineages in 46 primate species, and tested for a correlation between them. Results: First, we demonstrate that species-specific and lineage-specific evolutionary constraints favour species- and lineage-dependent substitution rate at the codons specifying the ABS contact residues (i.e. certain species and lineages can be characterised by high substitution rate, while others have low rate). Second, we show that although the degree of the non-synonymous substitution rate at the ABS contact residues was systematically higher than the degree of the synonymous substitution rate, these estimates were strongly correlated when we controlled for species-specific and lineage-specific effects, and also for the fact that different studies relied on different sample size. Such relationships between substitution rates of different types could even be extended to the non-contact residues of the molecule. Third, we provide statistical evidence that increased substitution rate along a MHC gene may lead to allelic variation, as a high substitution rate can be observed in those lineages in which many alleles are maintained. Fourth, we show that the detected patterns were independent of phylogenetic constraints. When we used phylogenetic models that control for similarity between species, due to common descent, and focused on variations within a single lineage (DRB1*03), the positive relationship between different substitution rates and allelic polymorphisms was still robust. Finally, we found the same effects to emerge in the analyses that eliminated within-species variation in MHC traits by using strictly single population-level studies. However, in a set of contrasting analyses, in which we focused on the non-functional DRB6 locus, the correlation between substitution rates and allelic variation was not prevalent. Conclusion: Our results indicate that positive selection for the generation of allelic polymorphism acting on the functional part of the protein has consequences for the nucleotide substitution rate along the whole exon 2 sequence of the Mhc-DRB gene. Additionally, we proved that an increased substitution rate can promote allelic variation within lineages. Consequently, the evolution of different characteristics of genetic polymorphism is not independent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many species are threatened with extinction as their population sizes decrease with changing environments or face novel pathogenic threats. A reduction of genetic diversity at major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes may have dramatic effects on populations' survival, as these genes play a key role in adaptive immunity. This might be the case for chimpanzees, the MHC genes of which reveal signatures of an ancient selective sweep likely due to a viral epidemic that reduced their population size a few million years ago. To better assess how this past event affected MHC variation in chimpanzees compared to humans, we analysed several indexes of genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium across seven MHC genes on four cohorts of chimpanzees and we compared them to those estimated at orthologous HLA genes in a large set of human populations. Results: Interestingly, the analyses uncovered similar patterns of both molecular diversity and linkage disequilibrium across the seven MHC genes in chimpanzees and humans. Indeed, in both species the greatest allelic richness and heterozygosity were found at loci A, B, C and DRB1, the greatest nucleotide diversity at loci DRB1, DQA1 and DQB1, and both significant global linkage disequilibrium and the greatest proportions of haplotypes in linkage disequilibrium were observed at pairs DQA1 ~ DQB1, DQA1 ~ DRB1, DQB1 ~ DRB1 and B ~ C. Our results also showed that, despite some differences among loci, the levels of genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium observed in contemporary chimpanzees were globally similar to those estimated in small isolated human populations, in contrast to significant differences compared to large populations. Conclusions: We conclude, first, that highly conserved mechanisms shaped the diversity of orthologous MHC genes in chimpanzees and humans. Furthermore, our findings support the hypothesis that an ancient demographic decline affecting the chimpanzee populations – like that ascribed to a viral epidemic – exerted a substantial effect on the molecular diversity of their MHC genes, albeit not more pronounced than that experienced by HLA genes in human populations that underwent rapid genetic drift during humans' peopling history. We thus propose a model where chimpanzees' MHC genes regenerated molecular variation through recombination/gene conversion and/or balancing selection after the selective sweep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]