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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a human coronaviruses that emerged in China at Wuhan city, Hubei province during December 2019. Subsequently, SARS-CoV-2 has spread worldwide and caused millions of deaths around the globe. Several compounds and vaccines have been proposed to tackle this crisis. Novel recommended in silico approaches have been commonly used to screen for specific SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors of different types. Herein, the phytochemicals of Pakistani medicinal plants (especially Artemisia annua) were virtually screened to identify potential inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease enzyme. The X-ray crystal structure of the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 with an N3 inhibitor was obtained from the protein data bank while A. annua phytochemicals were retrieved from different drug databases. The docking technique was carried out to assess the binding efficacy of the retrieved phytochemicals; the docking results revealed that several phytochemicals have potential to inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 main protease enzyme. Among the total docked compounds, the top-10 docked complexes were considered for further study and evaluated for their physiochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. The top-3 docked complexes with the best binding energies were as follows: the top-1 docked complex with a −7 kcal/mol binding energy score, the top-2 docked complex with a −6.9 kcal/mol binding energy score, and the top-3 docked complex with a −6.8 kcal/mol binding energy score. These complexes were subjected to a molecular dynamic simulation analysis for further validation to check the dynamic behavior of the selected top-complexes. During the whole simulation time, no major changes were observed in the docked complexes, which indicated complex stability. Additionally, the free binding energies for the selected docked complexes were also estimated via the MM-GB/PBSA approach, and the results revealed that the total delta energies of MMGBSA were −24.23 kcal/mol, −26.38 kcal/mol, and −25 kcal/mol for top-1, top-2, and top-3, respectively. MMPBSA calculated the delta total energy as −17.23 kcal/mol (top-1 complex), −24.75 kcal/mol (top-2 complex), and −24.86 kcal/mol (top-3 complex). This study explored in silico screened phytochemicals against the main protease of the SARS-CoV-2 virus; however, the findings require an experimentally based study to further validate the obtained results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 which is the source of pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 has engulfed almost whole world. This virus was first reported in Wuhan city (China) in December 2019. Since the discovery of the virus, till today the researchers and scientists have been working to develop new vaccines or therapeutic agents against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. However, thus far no vaccine has emerged that can be approved to treat or prevent coronavirus disease 2019. Due to lack of specific preventative and therapeutic options for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019, the use of convalescent plasma therapy may be of great benefit in the current situation. Previous use of immune plasma has resulted in successful treatment of hemagglutinin type 1 and neuraminidase type 1 influenza virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 1 epidemics. In the current scenario raised by coronavirus disease 2019, the convalescent plasma therapy has been applied successfully among many patients across various regions. This article presents an up-to-date review of existing literature on recovery through convalescent plasma as a treatment of choice, safety and its efficacy, possibility and its challenges for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coronavirus disease 2019 is a tiny self-replicated agent that is peculiarly found in humans and animals. A total of seven human Coronavirus types have been well-known to cause infectious disease in humans. They are known to infect the neurological and respiratory systems mostly. The first human Coronavirus identified in mid-1960's and then have seen widespread outbreaks in the form of Middle East respiratory syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome related Coronavirus (SARS-CoV). However, we see the emergence of another outbreak due to a new virus called the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This COVID-19 novel disease infected people first time in Wuhan, China. As the number of infected cases rises, it is clear that these pandemics pose a threatening impact on social and economic sectors. The general overview of Coronavirus will be explained in this article and also enlightened some of significant social and economic factors influenced by the novel COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coronaviruses, which have been enveloped nonsegmented positive‐sense RNA viruses, were first mentioned in the mid‐1960s and can attack people as well as a wide range of animals (including mammals and birds). Three zoonotic coronaviruses have been identified as the cause of large‐scale epidemics over the last two decades: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and swine acute diarrhea syndrome (SADS). Epithelial cells in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract are the principal targeted cells, and viral shedding occurs via these systems in diverse ways such as through fomites, air, or feces. Patients infected with the novel coronavirus (2019‐nCoV) reported having visited the Wuhan seafood wholesale market shortly before disease onset. The clinical data on established 2019‐nCoV cases reported so far indicate a milder disease course than that described for patients with SARS‐CoV or MERS‐CoV. This study aimed to review radiation inactivation of these viruses in the food industry in three sections: visible light, ionizing radiation (alpha ray, beta ray, X‐ray, gamma ray, neutron, plasma, and ozone), and nonionizing radiation (microwave, ultraviolet, infrared, laser light, and radiofrequency). Due to the obvious possibility of human‐to‐human and animal‐to‐human transmission, using at least one of these three methods in food processing and packaging during coronavirus outbreaks will be critical for preventing further outbreaks at the community level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since emerging coronaviruses have always become a human health concern globally especially severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and a novel coronavirus was introduced in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 (called SARS‐CoV‐2), many researchers focused on its epidemics, virological and clinical features. SARS‐CoV‐2 is classified as Betacoronaviruses genus and Sarbecovirus subgenus (lineage B). The virus shows a great similarity with SARS‐CoV and bat SARS‐like coronaviruses. In this study, we evaluate SARS‐CoV‐2 virus phylogeny and evolution by using current virus and related sequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report clinical profile of hundred and nine patients with SARS CoV-2 infection, and whole genome sequences (WGS) of seven virus isolates from the first reported cases in India, with various international travel histories. Comorbidities such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease were frequently associated with severity of the disease. WBC and neutrophil counts showed an increase, while lymphocyte counts decreased in patients with severe infection suggesting a possible neutrophil mediated organ damage, while immune activity may be diminished with decrease in lymphocytes leading to disease severity. Increase in SGOT, SGPT and blood urea suggests the functional deficiencies of liver, heart, and kidney in patients who succumbed to the disease when compared to the group of recovered patients. The WGS analysis showed that these isolates were classified into two clades: I/A3i, and A2a (four according to GISAID: O, L, GR, and GH). Further, WGS phylogeny and travel history together indicate possible transmission from Middle East and Europe. Three S protein variants: Wuhan reference, D614G, and Y28H were identified predicted to possess different binding affinities to host ACE2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outbreak of the new coronavirus in Wuhan, Chinese Hubei City (COV-2) was also known as COVID-19 and has spread to more than 213 countries, zones or territories worldwide, and is an emergency of international public health with no antiviral drugs or vaccines; and, also, the presencouragement of the disease has become a global public health emergency. This novel coronavirus is now the seventh member of the coronaviridae family, known for infecting humans and showing evidence of causing gastric symptoms, and has the potential to be transmitted through the fecal-oral route according to a new report published online by physicians at Shanghai Jiao Tong University (Gastroenterology. 2020 March 3. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro. 2020.02.054). Here we identify the efforts to compile and disseminate the COVID-19 epidemiological information on Its potential G.I. Demonstration of news media and social networks, and few newspapers recently published. Physicians should know, how GI manifestation discussed in different publications to suspect CORONA virus infection in that patients who does not have any upper and lower respiratory tract symptom and intervein to discuss the disease severity and duration. It will increase the threshold of suspicion of physician toward Covid-19 disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a viral pneumonia, responsible for the recent pandemic, and originated from Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The causative agent of the outbreak was identified as coronavirus and designated as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS- CoV-2). Few years back, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS- CoV) and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) were reported to be highly pathogenic and caused severe infections in humans. In the current situation SARS-CoV-2 has become the third highly pathogenic coronavirus that is responsible for the present outbreak in human population. At the time of this review, there were more than 14 007 791 confirmed COVID-19 patients which associated with over 597 105 deaths in more then 216 countries across the globe (as reported by World Health Organization). In this review we have discussed about SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARC-CoV-2, their reservoirs, role of spike proteins and immunogenicity. We have also covered the diagnosis, therapeutics and vaccine status of SARS-CoV-2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and SARS-CoV-2 are related to the coronaviridae family. The worldwide pandemic of the new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) broke out in Wuhan province of China, in December 2019, and spread rapidly throughout the world. More than 6 million cases and 370,000 deaths had been reported by 31 May 2020 in more than 200 countries. No data are available from any clinical trials supporting a proposed prophylactic therapy. More than 300 active clinical trials are currently underway. Many drugs have been studied against COVID-19, but there is no actual evidence from any randomized clinical trials with a potential therapy that can improve outcomes of a patient diagnosed with COVID-19. In some cases, many of the investigated drugs cause side effects, e.g. chloroquine, ribavirin. Besides its beneficial effects such as reducing disease progression and decreasing symptom duration, chloroquine can cause cardiac side effects. Ribavirin, on the other hand, is recognized as a teratogen and considered unsafe in pregnancy. No special effective antiviral therapy against COVID-19 is currently available. Although the course of the disease is mild and moderate in the majority of the COVID-19 patients, more than 5%-7% of the patients' life being under severely susceptible threats requires more effective medicinal products, urgently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As reported by the World Health Organization, a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) was identified as the causative virus of Wuhan pneumonia of unknown etiology by Chinese authorities on 7 January, 2020. The virus was named as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses on 11 February, 2020. This study aimed to develop a mathematical model for calculating the transmissibility of the virus. Methods: In this study, we developed a Bats-Hosts-Reservoir-People transmission network model for simulating the potential transmission from the infection source (probably be bats) to the human infection. Since the Bats-Hosts-Reservoir network was hard to explore clearly and public concerns were focusing on the transmission from Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market (reservoir) to people, we simplified the model as Reservoir-People (RP) transmission network model. The next generation matrix approach was adopted to calculate the basic reproduction number (R0) from the RP model to assess the transmissibility of the SARS-CoV-2. Results: The value of R0 was estimated of 2.30 from reservoir to person and 3.58 from person to person which means that the expected number of secondary infections that result from introducing a single infected individual into an otherwise susceptible population was 3.58. Conclusions: Our model showed that the transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 was higher than the Middle East respiratory syndrome in the Middle East countries, similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome, but lower than MERS in the Republic of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel betacoronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which caused a large respiratory outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019, is currently spreading across many countries globally. Here, we show that a TMPRSS2- expressing VeroE6 cell line is highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, making it useful for isolating and propagating SARS-CoV-2. Our results reveal that, in common with SARS- and Middle East respiratory syndrome-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 infection is enhanced by TMPRSS2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans have witnessed three deadly pandemics so far in the twenty-first century which are associated with novel coronaviruses: SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and COVID-19. All of these viruses, which are responsible for causing acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs), are highly contagious in nature and/or have caused high mortalities. The recently emerged COVID-19 disease is a highly transmittable viral infection caused by another zoonotic novel coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Similar to the other two coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2 is also likely to have originated from bats, which have been serving as established reservoirs for various pathogenic coronaviruses. Although, it is still unknown how SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted from bats to humans, the rapid human-to-human transmission has been confirmed widely. The disease first appeared in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 and quickly spread across the globe, infected 48,539,872 people, and caused 1,232,791 deaths in 215 countries, and the infection is still spreading at the time of manuscript preparation. So far, there is no definite line of treatment which has been approved or vaccine which is available. However, different types of potential vaccines and therapeutics have been evaluated and/or are under clinical trials against COVID-19. In this review, we summarize different types of acute respiratory diseases and briefly discuss earlier outbreaks of coronaviruses and compare their occurrence and pathogenicity with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Various epidemiological aspects of COVID-19 such as mode of spread, death rate, doubling time, etc., have been discussed in detail. Apart from this, different technical issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic including use of masks and other socio-economic problems associated with the pandemic have also been summarized. Additionally, we have reviewed various aspects of patient management strategies including mechanism of action, available diagnostic tools, etc., and also discussed different strategies for the development of effective vaccines and therapeutic combinations to deal with this viral outbreak. Overall, by the inclusion of various references, this review covers, in detail, the most important aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Remdesivir interacts with the SARS-CoV-2 RdRp and inhibit virus replication. • Lopinavir/ritonavir is a protease inhibitor, which may inhibit the 3Clike protease of SARS-CoV-2. • Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine could impair the replication of SARS-CoV-2 by multiple mechanisms. • Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine may ameliorate immune-mediated clinical manifestations of the host. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a kind of viral pneumonia with an unusual outbreak in Wuhan, China, which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). There is currently no licensed antiviral treatment available to prevent human CoV infection. The widespread clinical use and existing knowledge on antiviral mechanisms of remdesivir, lopinavir/ritonavir and chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of previous epidemic diseases, namely, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), may be helpful in the combat with novel SARS-CoV-2 infection. Recent clinical evidence didn't confirm the beneficial role of lopinavir/ritonavir and chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 patients and their use was reassessed. We provide an overview of the current evidence into the mechanisms of action of these available drugs which are repurposed for treatment of the new virus. Available data identifies remdesivir as an adenosine analogue that can target the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and block viral RNA synthesis. It has been a promising antiviral drug against a wide array of RNA viruses. 3CLpro is a major CoV protease that cleaves the large replicase polyproteins during viral replication and can be targeted by the protease inhibitor lopinavir/ritonavir but the clinical effects are controversial. Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine could impair the replication of SARSCoV-2 by multiple mechanisms and their immunomodulatory properties could ameliorate clinical manifestations that are mediated by immune reactions of the host although its beneficial effects are under question and need to be proven at the clinical level. Existing in vitro and in vivo evidence delineate the molecular mechanisms of these drugs in CoV-infected cells. Numerous studies demonstrated the ability of remdesivir to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication but future research would be needed to understand the exact mode of action of lopinavir/ritonavir and chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells and to use this knowledge in the treatment of the current COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak started in early December 2019 in the capital city of Wuhan, Hubei province, People's Republic of China, and caused a global pandemic. The number of patients confirmed to have this disease has exceeded 9 million in more than 215 countries, and more than 480 600 have died as of 25 June 2020. Coronaviruses were identified in the 1960s and have recently been identified as the cause of a Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) outbreak in 2012 and a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003. The current SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the most recently identified. Patients with COVID-19 may be asymptomatic. Typical symptoms include fever, dry cough and shortness of breath. Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea have been reported; neurologically related symptoms, particularly anosmia, hyposmia and dysgeusia, have also been reported. Physical examination may find fever in over 44% of patients (and could be documented in over 88% of patients after admission), increased respiratory rate, acute respiratory disease and maybe decreased consciousness, agitation and confusion. This article aims at presenting an up-to-date review on the pathogenesis, diagnosis and complications of COVID-19 infection. Currently no therapeutics have been found to be effective. Investigational therapeutics are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seven years after the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak, a new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) made its first appearance in a food market in Wuhan, China, drawing an entirely new course to our lives. As the virus belongs to the same genus of MERS and SARS, researchers have been trying to draw lessons from previous outbreaks to find a potential cure. Although there were five Phase I human vaccine trials against SARS and MERS, the lack of data in humans provided us with limited benchmarks that could help us design a new vaccine for Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this review, we showcase the similarities in structures of virus components between SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 in areas relevant to vaccine design. Using the ClinicalTrials.gov and World Health Organization (WHO) databases, we shed light on the 16 current approved clinical trials worldwide in search for a COVID-19 vaccine. The different vaccine platforms being tested are Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccines, DNA and RNA-based vaccines, inactivated vaccines, protein subunits, and viral vectors. By thoroughly analyzing different trials and platforms, we also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using each type of vaccine and how they can contribute to the design of an adequate vaccine for COVID-19. Studying past efforts invested in conducting vaccine trials for MERS and SARS will provide vital insights regarding the best approach to designing an effective vaccine against COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 11 March 2020, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was defined by the World Health Organization as a pandemic. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the newly evolving human coronavirus infection that causes COVID-19, and it first appeared in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and spread rapidly all over the world. COVID-19 is being increasingly investigated through virology, epidemiology, and clinical management strategies. There is currently no established consensus on the standard of care in the pharmacological treatment of COVID-19 patients. However, certain medications suggested for other diseases have been shown to be potentially effective for treating this infection, though there has yet to be clear evidence. Therapies include new agents that are currently tested in several clinical trials, in addition to other medications that have been repurposed as antiviral and immune-modulating therapies. Previous high-morbidity human coronavirus epidemics such as the 2003 SARS-CoV and the 2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) prompted the identification of compounds that could theoretically be active against the emerging coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, advances in molecular biology techniques and computational analysis have allowed for the better recognition of the virus structure and the quicker screening of chemical libraries to suggest potential therapies. This review aims to summarize rationalized pharmacotherapy considerations in COVID-19 patients in order to serve as a tool for health care professionals at the forefront of clinical care during this pandemic. All the reviewed therapies require either additional drug development or randomized large-scale clinical trials to be justified for clinical use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]