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Biocrusts are critical biological components of drylands and play an important role in soil carbon (C) cycling. However, the effect of biocrusts on soil CO 2 exchange across global gradients of temperature and moisture is poorly understood. Moreover, their response to climate change remains highly uncertain. Bayesian hierarchical meta-analyses were performed on 47 published studies to quantify the impact of biocrusts on net soil exchange (NSE) of carbon- the difference between respiration and photosynthesis. Meta-analyses were also used on 23 studies to examine the effects of experimental warming on NSE in biocrusts. Meta-regressions further explored the thermal and wetness sensitivities of biocrust NSE and potential adaptation of biocrust responses to climate change. The development of biocrusts in dryland soils significantly increased NSE by 66.5 [22.2, 112.2] g C m−2yr−1, despite seasonal fluctuations, indicating a net loss of carbon to the atmosphere. Experimental warming, on average, increased biocrust NSE by 22.9 [-0.1, 40.8] g C m−2yr−1 per °C. However, across the spatial climate gradient, aridity limited the effects of warming, while high temperature decreased the thermal sensitivity of biocrust NSE, thus supporting the thermal adaptation of biocrusts. These results emphasize the critical role of biocrusts in modulating soil carbon exchange in response to climate warming across drylands, with particularly high thermal sensitivity in cool and moist regions. This highlights the need to incorporate biocrusts into global carbon budgets and models for a comprehensive understanding of their impact on the carbon cycle. • Biocrusts increase soil CO2 efflux by 66.5 g C m-2yr-1 in drylands worldwide. • Climate warming increases CO2 efflux in biocrust soil by 22.9 g C m-2yr-1 per °C. • Thermal adaptation reduces thermal sensitivity of biocrust carbon efflux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent observational evidence suggests that nighttime temperatures are increasing faster than daytime temperatures, while in some regions precipitation events are becoming less frequent and more intense. The combined ecological impacts of these climatic changes on crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants and their interactions with other functional groups (i.e., grass communities) remain poorly understood. Here we developed a growth chamber experiment to investigate how two CAM–grass communities in desert ecosystems of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico respond to asymmetric warming and increasing rainfall variability. Grasses generally showed competitive advantages over CAM plants with increasing rainfall variability under ambient temperature conditions. In contrast, asymmetric warming caused mortality of both grass species (Bouteloua eriopoda and Bouteloua curtipendula) in both rainfall treatments due to enhanced drought stress. Grass mortality indirectly favored CAM plants even though the biomass of both CAM species Cylindropuntia imbricata and Opuntia phaeacantha significantly decreased. The stem's volume-to-surface ratio of C. imbricata was significantly higher in mixture than in monoculture under ambient temperature (both P < 0.0014); however, the difference became insignificant under asymmetric warming (both P > 0.1625), suggesting that warming weakens the negative effects of interspecific competition on CAM plant growth. Our findings suggest that while the increase in intra-annual rainfall variability enhances grass productivity, asymmetric warming may lead to grass mortality, thereby indirectly favoring the expansion of co-existing CAM plants. This study provides novel experimental evidence showing how the ongoing changes in global warming and rainfall variability affect CAM–grass growth and interactions in dryland ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: The intensity of extreme rainfall events is increasing in many regions of the world, with important impacts on community dynamics and ecosystem functioning especially in water-limited ecosystems. The impact of the intensification of extreme precipitation on mixed communities of CAM plants and dryland C4 grasses remains poorly understood. Methods: Through a set of greenhouse experiments we investigated the effect of increasing intraseasonal rainfall variability on two separate pairs of CAM and C4 grass species (C. imbricata and B. eriopoda; O. phaeacantha and B. curtipendula) that coexist in arid grasslands across the southwest USA. Results: The increased rainfall variability did not significantly change the biomass of C. imbricata while increasing the biomass of B. eriopoda when these two species coexisted. More extreme rainfall regimes caused a 24.8% decrease in B. curtipendula (grass) biomass, compared with a 71.3% decline in the O. phaeacantha CAM plant. Significantly lower nocturnal carbon assimilation rates and higher stem volume-to-surface area ratios were found in CAM plants in mixture than in monoculture. Conclusions: Our study suggests that C4 grasses may outcompete CAM plants through greater access to deep soil water under increased rainfall variability and highlights the important role of hydrologic conditions as determinants of the competitive relations between CAM plants and grasses, their community composition, and ecological resilience in dryland ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Global climate change may greatly alter the structure and stability of drylands, creating an urgent need to recover their functions and services. Biological soil crust (biocrust), an interface between the soil and atmosphere, plays a crucial role in ecohydrological processes, and thus in influencing the restoration dynamics of dryland ecosystems. Previous studies have generally investigated the influences of biocrust on ecohydrological processes as an exogenous factor. However, it remains unclear how biocrusts, as an integral part of many ecosystems (i.e., as a system state variable), will change under global climate change.Methods: This study developed a new ecohydrological model with biocrust cover as a system state variable, and explored the response of dryland ecosystems to altered rainfall regimes.Results: Biocrust cover responded with an inverted U-shaped curve relationship to increasing annual rainfall and linearly to increasing rainfall frequency. Vascular plant (grass and shrub) cover showed an increasing trend with increasing annual rainfall and a decreasing trend to increasing rainfall frequency. Therefore, biocrust usually dominated over vascular plants (i.e., high biocrust cover and low vascular plant cover) under low annual rainfall. Furthermore, an increasing rainfall frequency would amplify the range of environmental (rainfall) conditions dominated by biocrust from an annual rainfall 0-100 mm under a rainfall frequency of 0.025 day−1 to 0-500 mm under a rainfall frequency of 1 day−1.Conclusions: This study developed a model framework to predict dryland dynamics for surfaces covered by biocrust under global climate change. We suggest that restoration efforts could target at biocrust-dominated state in deserts, especially in a (future) drier climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When restoring dryland ecosystems, growing biological soil crust (biocrust) may greatly change the redistribution of rainfall in layered soils. However, ecohydrological modelling studies generally ignore biocrust and thus, the ecohydrological effects of biocrust on restorations remain largely unexplored. Using a long-term restoration case (located in the southeast edge of the Tengger Desert, northern China), we developed an ecohydrological model with explicit consideration of the infiltration in three layered soils (biocrust, shallow and deep sand layers) to investigate influences of biocrust on restoration dynamics in drylands. The proportion of infiltration that reaches ‘annual grass’ (including biocrust and shallow sand layers, 0–30 cm) and ‘shrub’ layers (30–150 cm) with biocrust significantly increased and decreased relative to the values without biocrust, respectively. Meanwhile, biocrust significantly decreased soil water content in deep sand layer, but not in shallow sand layer. As more water was used by transpiration than evaporation, the ecosystem with biocrust reached a final grass-dominated state (high grass cover of 40%, low shrub cover of 4%) rather than a shrub-dominated state (grass cover of 3%, shrub cover of 20%). This study suggests that we need to account for the roles of biocrust on rainfall infiltration to better understand vegetation and restoration dynamics in dryland ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]