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Policy makers require high‐level summaries of biodiversity change. However, deriving such summaries from raw biodiversity data is a complex process involving several intermediary stages. In this paper, we describe an operational workflow for generating annual estimates of species occupancy at national scales from raw species occurrence data, which can be used to construct a range of policy‐relevant biodiversity indicators. We describe the workflow in detail: from data acquisition, data assessment and data manipulation, through modelling, model evaluation, application and dissemination. At each stage, we draw on our experience developing and applying the workflow for almost a decade to outline the challenges that analysts might face. These challenges span many areas of ecology, taxonomy, data science, computing and statistics. In our case, the principal output of the workflow is annual estimates of occupancy, with measures of uncertainty, for over 5000 species in each of several defined 'regions' (e.g. countries, protected areas, etc.) of the UK from 1970 to 2019. This data product corresponds closely to the notion of a species distribution Essential Biodiversity Variable (EBV). Throughout the paper, we highlight methodologies that might not be applicable outside of the UK and suggest alternatives. We also highlight areas where the workflow can be improved; in particular, methods are needed to mitigate and communicate the risk of bias arising from the lack of representativeness that is typical of biodiversity data. Finally, we revisit the 'ideal' and 'minimal' criteria for species distribution EBVs laid out in previous contributions and pose some outstanding questions that should be addressed as a matter of priority. Going forward, we hope that this paper acts as a template for research groups around the world seeking to develop similar data products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With one quarter of Britain's mammals in serious decline and one-third of those most under threat being our more elusive bats, people who own, manage or access a variety of buildings are playing an ever more vital role in helping to conserve wildlife, often without even realising it. Buildings have become important roosting sites for bats, including houses, bridges, barns, mines, and historic buildings and churches. As older structures that have escaped modernisation, churches can provide ideal habitats for bats. In small numbers, bats in churches often go unnoticed, but where they roost in large numbers, or where multiple species use the same church, a conflict can arise between the wildlife and the community using the building and caring for the artefacts inside. In contrast to residential and commercial buildings, where bats and people are separated by a ceiling, churches often have open-roof architecture. This means that bat droppings and urine can damage historic items, the fabric and interior of the church, and create an unmanageable cleaning burden for the church community. This is why the Bats in Churches project is so important. This partnership between the Church of England, Historic England, Natural England, Bat Conservation Trust and Churches Conservation Trust was granted funding by the National Lottery Heritage Fund in 2018 and runs through 2023. The project brings together ecologists, church architects and heritage experts to trial and implement systems to manage the issues created by bats in churches, through a specially designed licence. The UK has 17 breeding bat species. Sadly, the loss of natural roosting sites coupled with factors such as intensive agriculture and urbanisation, including increasing levels of light pollution, have all had a dramatic impact on bat populations, which have seen serious declines in the last century. As well as making up a significant proportion of Britain's mammal biodiversity, bats are indicator species. This means changes to our bat populations can reveal wider changes to local wildlife populations signalling the health of the environment upon which we all ultimately depend. This is why all species of bat in the UK and their roosts are protected by law. This means it is illegal to damage, destroy or disturb any bats or their roosts without having taken the necessary precautions and sought the correct advice from the Statutory Nature Conservation Organisation (SNCO) for your country. In England, this is Natural England, via the Bat Conservation Trust. This does not mean, however, that building work, roof repairs and other maintenance works cannot take place. It is entirely possible to carry out works alongside resident bats, but it requires careful planning and consideration of timings. This paper will discuss the law relating to bats and building works. It will cover how bats use churches and other buildings, and the impact they can have on church interiors and communities. It will consider the practicalities of surveys and licensing and will describe some interventions and mitigation solutions created by the Bats in Churches project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected Areas (PAs) have been a cornerstone of conservation policy in the past but are generally static and thus might be less useful under climate change as species move away from reserves designated for them. In addition, shifting phenology and habitat alteration due to extreme events could make conditions unviable within PAs for species unable to move. However, several recent papers documented their utility in retaining contracting species, acting as stepping-stones for expanding species of conservation concern and resisting invasion by vagrants. Theoretical studies have suggested a role for both protected area design and management to enable biodiversity to adapt to climate change and implementation of these actions has begun. Here we synthesise case studies of climate change adaptation actions in protected areas from the globally available literature. We found 91 case studies of 114 different actions from 30 countries, mostly within Europe, specifically the UK. Half reported an outcome of actions, however, these were generally either the area restored or protected, or incidental reports of colonisation by desired species, without a description of monitoring before and after action. In addition, 72 % of actions would have been beneficial to biodiversity without the presence of climate change, so transformative action is lacking. Better monitoring and reporting of outcomes are urgently needed to develop the evidence base on which actions are most effective, to enable more reserve managers to take action. Managers also need encouragement to identify transformative actions, perhaps by the use of scenario planning to aid understanding of future uncertainties. • Most recorded climate change adaptation actions for biodiversity on Protected Areas are existing good practise • Reporting of outcomes was reasonably common but did not capture the effectiveness of actions for aiding adaptation • Conservation may be falling behind other sectors in implementing and assessing climate change adaptation actions • Protected Area managers urgently need resources to assess and report meaningful indicators of success [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity indicators summarise extensive, complex ecological data sets and are important in influencing government policy. Component data consist of time-varying indices for each of a number of different species. However, current biodiversity indicators suffer from multiple statistical shortcomings. We describe a state-space formulation for new multispecies biodiversity indicators, based on rates of change in the abundance or occupancy probability of the contributing individual species. The formulation is flexible and applicable to different taxa. It possesses several advantages, including the ability to accommodate the sporadic unavailability of data, incorporate variation in the estimation precision of the individual species' indices when appropriate, and allow the direct incorporation of smoothing over time. Furthermore, model fitting is straightforward in Bayesian and classical implementations, the latter adopting either efficient Hidden Markov modelling or the Kalman filter. Conveniently, the same algorithms can be adopted for cases based on abundance or occupancy data—only the subsequent interpretation differs. The procedure removes the need for bootstrapping which can be prohibitive. We recommend which of two alternatives to use when taxa are fully or partially sampled. The performance of the new approach is demonstrated on simulated data, and through application to three diverse national UK data sets on butterflies, bats and dragonflies. We see that uncritical incorporation of index standard errors should be avoided. Supplementary materials accompanying this paper appear online. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive poultry units give rise to air emissions of ammonia which have the potential to negatively impact biodiversity. This paper provides a brief overview of the UK regulatory framework surrounding the assessment of ammonia emissions on sensitive habitats, it looks at the drivers behind the regulation and discusses how the assessment of impacts of ammonia emissions on sensitive habitat designations is undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric nitrogen pollution has severe impacts on biodiversity, but approaches to value them are limited. This paper develops a spatially explicit methodology to value the benefits from improvements in biodiversity resulting from current policy initiatives to reduce nitrogen emissions. Using the UK as a case study, we quantify nitrogen impacts on plant diversity in four habitats: heathland, acid grassland, dunes and bogs, at fine spatial resolution. Focusing on non-use values for biodiversity we apply value-transfer based on household's willingness to pay to avoid changes in plant species richness, and calculate the benefit of projected emission declines of 37% for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and 6% for ammonia (NH 3 ) over the scenario period 2007–2020. The annualised benefit resulting from these pollutant declines is £32.7 m (£4.4 m to £109.7 m, 95% Confidence Interval), with the greatest benefit accruing from heathland and acid grassland due to their large area. We also calculate damage costs per unit of NO 2 and NH 3 emitted, to quantify some of the environmental impacts of air pollution for use alongside damage costs for human health in policy appraisal. The benefit is £103 (£33 to £237) per tonne of NO 2 saved, and £414 (£139 to £1022) per tonne of NH 3 saved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expanding international trade and increased transportation are heavily implicated in the growing threat posed by invasive pathogens to biodiversity and landscapes. With trees and woodland in the UK now facing threats from a number of disease systems, this paper looks to historical experience with the Dutch elm disease (DED) epidemic of the 1970s to see what can be learned about an outbreak and attempts to prevent, manage and control it. The paper draws on an interdisciplinary investigation into the history, biology and policy of the epidemic. It presents a reconstruction based on a spatial modelling exercise underpinned by archival research and interviews with individuals involved in the attempted management of the epidemic at the time. The paper explores what, if anything, might have been done to contain the outbreak and discusses the wider lessons for plant protection. Reading across to present-day biosecurity concerns, the paper looks at the current outbreak of ramorum blight in the UK and presents an analysis of the unfolding epidemiology and policy of this more recent, and potentially very serious, disease outbreak. The paper concludes by reflecting on the continuing contemporary relevance of the DED experience at an important juncture in the evolution of plant protection policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A conference paper about the importance of urban gardens to biodiversity is presented. It highlights that the garden space in London, England is not proportionate to the other cities in Great Britain. Noted are the benefits associated urban gardens which include providing habitat for wildlife and adapting to impacts of climate change. It cites several native plant and animal species supported by urban gardens such as black redstart, stag beetle and garden trees.

Rural landscapes are highly dynamic and their change impacts on a number of ecological processes such as the dynamics of biodiversity. Although a substantial amount of research has focused on quantifying these changes and their impact on biodiversity, most studies have focused on single dimensions of land use change. This lack of integration in land use change studies can be explained by the fact that data on the spatial, temporal, and ecological dimensions of land use are seldom available for the same geographical location. In this paper, the benefits of taking into account these three dimensions are illustrated with results derived from the Great Britain Countryside Surveys (CS), a large-scale monitoring programme designed to assess change in the extent and ecological condition of British habitats. The overview of CS results presented in this paper shows that (1) changes in land use composition will translate into a variety of spatial patterns; (2) the temporal stability of land use is often lower than can be expected; and (3) there can be large-scale shifts in the ecological condition of the land use types that form our rural landscapes. The benefits of integrated rural landscape studies are discussed in the context of other national monitoring programmes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Climate change is a major issue for all levels of government, global, national and local. Local authorities' responses to climate change have tended to concentrate on their role in reducing greenhouse gases. However, the scientific consensus is that we also need to adapt to unavoidable climate change. Spatial planning at a local level has a critical anticipatory role to play in promoting robust adaptation. This paper reviews the shift in local authorities' planning policies for climate change adaptation in the UK since 2000, and provides evidence of underlying attitudes amongst planning professionals to climate change. It shows that, while the issue of climate change is becoming recognized with respect to flood risk, the wider implications (for instance, for biodiversity and water resources) are not yet integrated into plans. The reasons for this lie in lack of political support and lack of engagement of the planning profession with climate change networks. But the paper also argues there are difficulties in acknowledging the need for adaptation at the local level, with the short-term horizons of local plans at odds with perceptions of the long-term implications of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we document current research into new forms of public engagement presently taking place in UK biodiversity policy. This involves locating the main participants in such patterns of engagement; namely nature, amateur naturalists, and professional biologists and conservationists. Two interwoven and mutually interdependent perspectives or `imaginaries' -- the `cartographic' and the `ethnographic' -- are presented in the paper to explore the shaping and interpretation of such new forms of engagement. However, in this context the interest lies in the ways in which either perspective is foregrounded or backgrounded by the different parties involved. The described shifts and movements of a range of actors and processes being studied demonstrate the fluidity and instability of networks of 'knowing nature well', whose stability is often assumed. The tracing of two constants - expertise and exchange - within networks inhabited by nature and by amateur and professional naturalists allows for an exploration of ways in which social/natural inclusions and exclusions occur in new participatory practices designed as part of biodiversity action planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper documents research taking place in the midst of a series of shifts in biodiversity policy in the UK. It examines recent attempts to enrol volunteer naturalists and lay citizens into biodiversity action planning, suggesting that such attempts can be seen as a nascent form of environmental citizenship, which is based on the exchange of knowledge of nature among the different communities involved (policy makers, volunteer naturalists and lay citizens). By focusing on a range of knowledge practices, the paper explores the selective appropriation of some ways of knowing over others. It documents ways in which some actors involved are beginning to reflect on what it might mean for biodiversity policy to accommodate each others' knowledge and practices. The paper suggests that an increased sensitivity to the range of practices and knowledges embodied within these different domains may result in a redefinition and expansion of the category of citizen, and may in turn have implications for the way in which 'biodiversity' comes to be defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is a key land user implicated in the causes of, and solutions to, the problem of biodiversity decline. The development, in the late 1990s, of farm biodiversity action plans (farm BAPs) represents an important step towards achieving greater farmer involvement in biodiversity and is the first specific attempt to devise a practical mechanism for meeting biodiversity targets at the farm level. In this paper the processes surrounding the design and implementation of farm BAPs are used to explore how farmers are responding to the biodiversity issue and to highlight challenges and opportunities being faced by the organizations delivering biodiversity to the farming community. It describes the formulation and operation of farm BAPs, and then moves on to present two conceptual domains, governance and ecological modernization, which provide a framework for interpreting the emergence of farm BAPs. Following a brief elaboration of methodology, the paper presents and discusses selected findings from empirical research into farm BAPs across the UK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2011, the UK government set in motion a process to establish a formal biodiversity offsetting programme in England, as an attempt to tackle biodiversity loss as a result of development. Drawing on critical approaches to the commodification of nature, this article traces the dilemmas encountered by the UK government in its endeavours to roll out a biodiversity offsetting programme in the English planning system. Based on 34 in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, documentary analysis and participant observation at policy-focused events, the paper aims to show how the promise of reconciling development and conservation proved difficult to deliver. In government attempts to enrol sympathetic actors, disputes emerged over the purpose and fine detail of the proposals. Deeper tensions were revealed in clashes between governmental emphasis on deregulation and advocates’ calls for strong mandatory rules and well-resourced oversight, while efforts to balance complex ecology with market demands for simplicity and certainty undermined the promise of objective biodiversity metrics delivering uncontroversial hard numbers. Though the English case is in many ways context-specific, the problems experienced raise wider political questions around establishing meaningful offsetting schemes in any part of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Summary The objectives of this paper are to test the performance of the taxonomic distinctness index, δ+ , in a number of environmental impact scenarios, to examine its relationship with functional diversity and to examine the influence of habitat type and diversity on the index. The index was applied to data on free-living marine nematodes from the coasts of Britain and Chile. The taxonomic distinctness of nematodes from environmentally degraded locations was generally reduced in comparison with that of more pristine locations, often significantly so. Some habitat types may have naturally lower values of taxonomic distinctness than others. However, unless the habitats are degraded in some way the δ+ values do not generally fall below the lower 95% confidence limit of the simulated distribution under a null hypothesis that the assemblages behave as if they are a random selection from the regional species pool. This ameliorates the problem encountered with species richness measures of biodiversity, which are much more strongly affected by habitat type and complexity, thus making comparisons difficult between data sets from different habitats or where habitat type is uncontrolled. Taxonomic distinctness in marine nematodes is shown to be related to trophic diversity: a reduction in trophic diversity will lead to a reduction in taxonomic distinctness, although not necessarily to a reduction in species richness. Trophic composition itself is clearly affected by pollution, but is also strongly responsive to the major influence of habitat type. These features of the taxonomic distinctness index, coupled with its lack of dependence on sampling effort or differences in taxonomic rigour between workers and a statistical framework for the assessment of the significance of departure from expectation, suggest that it may prove to be a biologically and ecologically relevant measure of biodiversity. This paper demonstrates that the taxonomic... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes a strategic framework agreed by the statutory nature conservation agencies for conserving the native vascular and non-vascular plants of the United Kingdom, set in the context of international commitments. The strategy forms a contribution to action in accordance with the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity and it is discussed in the light of recent developments in the UK's implementation of this Convention. The vital role of botanists in the voluntary sector is acknowledged. This paper is presented to as to draw attention to further needs for information and action, to which many can contribute. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a key tool to help ensure sustainable built development in more than 200 countries worldwide. Ecology is frequently a component of EIA and early reviews of Ecological Impact Assessment (EcIA) chapters identified scope for improvement at almost every stage of the EcIA process, regardless of country. However, there have been no reviews of UK EcIA chapters since 2000, despite important changes in biodiversity and planning legislation, policy and guidance. In addition, no UK EcIA chapter reviews have attempted to assign a grade or score to EcIA chapters (as has been done for reviews of US, Finnish and Indian EcIA chapters). Furthermore, no EcIA chapter reviews have attempted to use a scoring system to identify which variables determine EcIA chapter information content, beyond straightforward comparisons of EcIA chapters before and after the introduction of guidelines. A variant of the Biodiversity Assessment Index (BAI) was used to assign scores between zero and one to EcIA chapters based on a series of 47 questions drawn from EU legislation and professional guidance. 112 EcIA chapters for proposed developments that were subsequently granted planning permission in England were assessed. The mean BAI score was less than 0.5, indicating the presence of considerable information gaps in the majority of EcIA chapters. Of 13 predictor variables identified as having the potential to affect EcIA chapter quality, 10 were identified as significantly related to the BAI scores. A backward stepwise Generalized Linear Model identified the use of professional guidance, the ecological consultancy type and the length of the EcIA chapter as having the greatest combined explanatory power. As a result, several recommendations are made to help improve future EcIA chapter content, including formal EcIA chapter review, publicising the professional guidance to consultants, the provision of training and the introduction of an accreditation scheme for consultants involved in EcIA This approach could be replicated in other countries that conduct EIA. Context-dependent EcIA chapter review criteria (as in this paper) would help to identify targeted recommendations for improvement. Alternatively, a global set of review criteria could highlight areas of best practice that could then be exported to other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Over 80% of UK peatlands are degraded to some extent and their widespread restoration could contribute to meeting various climate change, water quality and biodiversity policy challenges. Economic analysis of costs and benefits is, however, hampered by scientific uncertainty and a lack of data on biophysical conditions as well as the impacts and costs of restoration. This paper presents a simple ‘ready-reckoner’ of possible net economic benefits under different combinations of simplifying ‘what if?’ assumptions for key restoration parameters. The results strongly suggest that even a narrow focus on carbon benefits alone is sufficient to justify restoration in many cases, and the inclusion of possible additional non-carbon benefits reinforces this. However, results are sensitive to assumptions and better data for, in particular, restoration costs associated with modest emission savings from lightly degraded sites would be helpful. Some other areas for further research are also identified. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Findings from nitrogen (N) manipulation studies have provided strong evidence of the detrimental impacts of elevated N deposition on the structure and functioning of heathland ecosystems. Few studies, however, have sought to establish whether experimentally observed responses are also apparent under natural, field conditions. This paper presents the findings of a nationwide field-scale evaluation of British heathlands, across broad geographical, climatic and pollution gradients. Fifty two heathlands were selected across an N deposition gradient of 5.9 to 32.4 kg ha−1 yr−1. The diversity and abundance of higher and lower plants and a suite of biogeochemical measures were evaluated in relation to climate and N deposition indices. Plant species richness declined with increasing temperature and N deposition, and the abundance of nitrophilous species increased with increasing N. Relationships were broadly similar between upland and lowland sites, with the biggest reductions in species number associated with increasing N inputs at the low end of the deposition range. Both oxidised and reduced forms of N were associated with species declines, although reduced N appears to be a stronger driver of species loss at the functional group level. Plant and soil biochemical indices were related to temperature, rainfall and N deposition. Litter C:N ratios and enzyme (phenol-oxidase and phosphomonoesterase) activities had the strongest relationships with site N inputs and appear to represent reliable field indicators of N deposition. This study provides strong, field-scale evidence of links between N deposition - in both oxidised and reduced forms - and widespread changes in the composition, diversity and functioning of British heathlands. The similarity of relationships between upland and lowland environments, across broad spatial and climatic gradients, highlights the ubiquity of relationships with N, and suggests that N deposition is contributing to biodiversity loss and changes in ecosystem functioning across European heathlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the early 2000s increasing attention has been paid to the relationship between biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction and a debate has ensued over various aspects of this relationship. One element of this debate has been concerned with an apparent lack of attention to biodiversity conservation on the international development agenda following the prioritization of poverty reduction. This paper explores whether this lack of attention is real or perceived by reviewing changes in biodiversity policy within the UK Department for International Development (DFID). It is clear that attention to biodiversity within DFID policy has changed significantly over time. There was strong support for wildlife conservation until the 1990s, including technical assistance, funding for integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), and community-based conservation. By the 2000s, however, the main focus had switched from funding wildlife conservation to mainstreaming biodiversity concerns into development policy. The degree to which the explicit focus on poverty reduction that emerged in the late 1990s drove this change is debatable. Changes in aid architecture, UK politics and clearer differentiations between the roles of DFID and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in addressing biodiversity concerns have also shaped DFID's policy. Meanwhile, the political traction afforded to climate change demonstrates that it is possible for environmental issues to sit alongside poverty reduction in international development policy. However, communicating the societal implications of biodiversity loss has proved to be more challenging than for climate change. Better understanding of the mechanisms by which development assistance is disbursed would help the conservation community identify key opportunities for engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fieldwork is assumed by most practitioners to be an important if not essential component of a degree level education in the environmental sciences. However, there is strong evidence that as a result of a wide range of pressures (academic, financial and societal) fieldwork is in decline in the UK and elsewhere. In this paper we discuss the value of fieldwork in a higher education context and present the results of a case study which illustrates its value to student learning and the wider student experience. We used qualitative and quantitative methods to compare the impact of two learning tasks upon the affective and cognitive domains of students. We designed two tasks. One task that included fieldwork, and required students to collect organisms from the field and make labelled drawings of them, and one task that omitted the fieldwork and simply required drawing of specimens that the students had not collected. We evaluated the students' experience through structured and semi-structured questionnaires and written exercises. Students did not perceive the two tasks as being equivalent to one another. They reported that they enjoy fieldwork and value it (in the contexts of their learning at university, life-long learning, and in relation to their career aspirations) and felt that they learn more effectively in the field. Our students were better able to construct a taxonomic list of organisms that they had collected themselves, better able to recall the structural detail of these organisms and were better able to recall the detail of an ecological sampling methodology that they had personally carried out in the field rather than one that a tutor had described to them in a classroom setting. Our case study supports the growing body of evidence that fieldwork is an important way of enhancing undergraduate learning and highlights some key areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International trade poses a serious and growing threat to biosecurity through the introduction of invasive pests and disease: these have adverse impacts on plant and animal health and public goods such as biodiversity, as well as food production capacity. While international governmental bodies such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) recognise such threats, and permit governments to protect human, animal, and plant life or health, such measures must not be applied in a way that is restrictive to trade. This raises a fundamental (but little-examined) tension between effective biosecurity governance and the neoliberal priorities of international trade. In this paper we examine how such tensions play out in the different political and geographical contexts of Australia and the United Kingdom. A comparative approach enables close scrutiny of how trade liberalisation and biosecurity are coconstituted as compat-ible objectives as well as the tensions and contradictions involved in making these domains a single governable problem. The comparative analysis draws attention to the policy challenges facing Australia and the UK in governing national biosecurity in a neoliberal world. These challenges reveal a complex geopolitics in the ways in which biosecurity is practised, institutionalised, and debated in each country, with implications for which pests and diseases are defined as threats and, therefore, which commodities arc permitted to move across national borders. Despite efforts by the WTO to govern biosecurity as a technical matter of risk assessment and management, and to harmonise national practices, we contend that actual biosecurity practices continue to diverge between states depending on perceptions of risk and hazard, both to agricultural production and to rural environments as a whole, as well as unresolved tensions between internationalised neoliberalism and domestic concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable peatland management has recently risen up the UK political agenda as links between peatland ecosystem services and key political priorities, such as rural livelihoods, agricultural production, biodiversity conservation, and carbon emissions, have become established. By adopting an ecosystem approach, something that has become internationally advocated through the Convention on Biological Diversity, to understanding the objectives and sustainability of UK peatland management, this paper reviews contemporary policies relating to three broad categories of peatland ecosystem service (provisioning; regulating and cultural), developed at multiple levels (global to local). We highlight problems associated with incomplete knowledge about complex peatland ecosystem processes and disconnected policies and strategies. The review concludes by discussing the kinds of integrated land use policies that are beginning to emerge in the UK and may shape future peatland management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Multiple demands are placed on farming systems today. Society, national legislation and market forces seek what could be seen as conflicting outcomes from our agricultural systems, e.g. food quality, affordable prices, a healthy environmental, consideration of animal welfare, biodiversity etc., Many of these demands, or desirable outcomes, are interrelated, so reaching one goal may often compromise another and, importantly, pose a risk to the economic viability of the farm. SIMSDAIRY, a farm-scale model, was used to explore this complexity for dairy farm systems. SIMSDAIRY integrates existing approaches to simulate the effect of interactions between farm management, climate and soil characteristics on losses of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon. The effects on farm profitability and attributes of biodiversity, milk quality, soil quality and animal welfare are also included. SIMSDAIRY can also be used to optimise fertiliser N. In this paper we discuss some limitations and strengths of using SIMSDAIRY compared to other modelling approaches and propose some potential improvements. Using the model we evaluated the sustainability of organic dairy systems compared with conventional dairy farms under non-optimised and optimised fertiliser N use. Model outputs showed for example, that organic dairy systems based on grass-clover swards and maize silage resulted in much smaller total GHG emissions per l of milk and slightly smaller losses of NO3 leaching and NOx emissions per l of milk compared with the grassland/maize-based conventional systems. These differences were essentially because the conventional systems rely on indirect energy use for ‘fixing’ N compared with biological N fixation for the organic systems. SIMSDAIRY runs also showed some other potential benefits from the organic systems compared with conventional systems in terms of financial performance and soil quality and biodiversity scores. Optimisation of fertiliser N timings and rates showed a considerable scope to reduce the (GHG emissions per l milk too). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Monitoring change in species diversity, community composition and phenology is vital to assess the impacts of anthropogenic activity and natural change. However, monitoring by trained scientists is time consuming and expensive. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using social networks, we assess whether it is possible to obtain accurate data on bee distribution across the UK from photographic records submitted by untrained members of the public, and if these data are in sufficient quantity for ecological studies. We used Flickr and Facebook as social networks and Flickr for the storage of photographs and associated data on date, time and location linked to them. Within six weeks, the number of pictures uploaded to the Flickr BeeID group exceeded 200. Geographic coverage was excellent; the distribution of photographs covered most of the British Isles, from the south coast of England to the Highlands of Scotland. However, only 59% of photographs were properly uploaded according to instructions, with vital information such as 'tags' or location information missing from the remainder. Nevertheless, this incorporation of information on location of photographs was much higher than general usage on Flickr (<13%), indicating the need for dedicated projects to collect spatial ecological data. Furthermore, we found identification of bees is not possible from all photographs, especially those excluding lower abdomen detail. This suggests that giving details regarding specific anatomical features to include on photographs would be useful to maximise success. Conclusions/Significance: The study demonstrates the power of social network sites to generate public interest in a project and details the advantages of using a group within an existing popular social network site over a traditional (specificallydesigned) web-based or paper-based submission process. Some advantages include the ability to network with other individuals or groups with similar interests, and thus increasing the size of the dataset and participation in the project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key discussions emerging from within the centre and centre-left of British politics is the means of combining a commitment to diversity with the aim of achieving social solidarity. While there has been a populist strand to this debate recently with the contribution of writers such as Goodhart who has argued that diversity specifically undermines the willingness of the majority (white Anglo-Saxons) to pay for collective welfare provision, there has also been recognition of the difficulty of promoting difference and unity from within even the more sympathetic elements of the academic literature. The purpose of this paper is to consider the nature of this dilemma and to propose a tentative solution. In essence we suggest that the problem lies not in creating a fit between the two elements for the sake of making the new? social democracy work but in rebuilding traditional social democracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We characterised four recycled materials that have been manufactured into useful substrates for use on extensive green roofs. These were a crushed red brick (the U.K. industry standard substrate base and therefore used as a control) and three alternative pellets made from: clay and sewage sludge (waste clay from excavations, fly ash and sewage sludge), paper ash (from recycled newspapers) and carbonated limestone (from quarry fines). Investigations into optimal organic content – conifer-bark compost for plant nutrients – and characterisations such as pH, particle size distribution, loose bulk density, particle density, XRF and leachate analyses were performed. Greenhouse experiments showed significant interactions between the four aggregates and the amount of added organic material, meaning that organic addition did not have the same effect on plant growth in each aggregate. The addition of organics also significantly reduced the pH of the recycled aggregates, making growing conditions for plants more favourable in these substrates. Particle density and loose bulk density results have shown all substrates to be classed as lightweight aggregates and leaching analysis has confirmed that all substrates perform within legal leachate limits for drinking water. As all the aggregates are commercially available at similar costs to the crushed red brick control, we believe that the alternative substrates have great potential in the green roof market and as they can be locally sourced we would also suggest that they are as good, if not better, than the industry standard, both economically and environmentally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

1. Birds of prey and driven-grouse shooting are at the center of a long-standing human–wildlife conflict. Hen harrier predation can reduce grouse shooting bags, limit grouse populations and cause economic losses. Despite legal protection, hen harrier numbers are severely depleted on driven-grouse moors. 2. In limited trials, provision of supplementary food to hen harriers greatly reduced their predatory impact on young grouse, but did not result in higher grouse densities for shooting. Consequently, grouse moor managers have failed to adopt the technique. 3. A recent Forum paper has called for a trial ‘population ceiling scheme’ for hen harriers, arguing that this represents the best way to increase hen harrier numbers on driven-grouse moors. Once densities exceed the agreed ceiling, the excess would be translocated to other suitable habitat. 4. Whilst a ‘ceiling’ scheme might work, it would be difficult to implement and we believe that other approaches to population recovery should be tested first. 5. While driven-grouse shooting makes an important economic contribution to some rural communities, some grouse moor owners receive considerable sums of public money. Despite this, many moors are in poor condition, the ecosystem services they supply may be at risk from both climate change and current management practices, and grouse numbers are in decline. The socio-economic and environmental implications of alternative models of grouse management need urgent examination. 6. Synthesis and applications. If driven-grouse shooting is only viable when birds of prey are routinely disturbed and killed, then we question the legitimacy of driven-grouse shooting as a sustainable land use. Moorland owners need to consider more broadly sustainable shooting practices for the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the election of the Labour government in Britain in 1997, there has been a noticeable change in the scales of governance for spatial planning for the environment. The European scale of planning for biodiversity has been reinforced, but there has been a wider shift to one in which the integration of the environment into planning is strongly influenced by global environmental issues and international obligations. This paper explores the implications of this in the areas of spatial planning for biodiversity, and spatial planning for climate change (both mitigation and adaptation). It examines how far global commitments have enabled actors at different levels of governance—national, regional and local—to increase their scope for action and influence on outcomes through appealing to different scales of framing issues and their solutions. The picture that emerges is a complex one. While the commitments to internationally agreed targets for biodiversity and energy generation have partially reinforced the centralizing tendency in national government to see spatial planning as an instrument to deliver these targets, they have also increased the scope for other actors to use networks across multiple scales to generate their own interpretation and action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses two typically separate issues contributing to urban quality of life: increasing noise levels and declining quality of public green space. Drawing from environmental psychology, ecology and acoustical methods, this interdisciplinary research studied the soundscapes of three green spaces in a UK city through interviews with 70 park users, the measurement of habitat and recording of sound levels. The data reveal a prevalence of mechanical sounds and a hierarchy of preference for natural over people and mechanical sounds. There was a link between sound levels, both objective and perceived, and the type of sounds heard. The presence of these sounds varied across sites in part due to the ecological qualities of the place, specifically the presence of birds and shrub vegetation. The results suggest that people's opportunity to access quiet, natural places in urban areas can be enhanced by improving the ecological quality of urban green spaces through targeted planning and design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A meta-modelling approach has been adopted to link simulations of low and high water flows with simulations of suitable climate space for a selection of fen and bog species with differing drought and flood tolerance. The linked meta-models were used to examine the impacts of socio-economic and climate change scenarios on wetlands in two contrasting regions of the UK. The hydrological model shows that low and high flows are sensitive to climate change and to the regional distribution of abstractions and discharges. Where there are large changes in urbanisation, flows are more sensitive to socio-economic change. The changes in high flows have little impact on the species selected, but changes in low flows result in a number of areas becoming marginal or unsuitable due to dryness. At the regional scale, adaptation options appear to be limited and mostly involve, for surface water-influenced wetlands, increased water imports (either directly through increased non-consumptive water demand or indirectly through river augmentation), which may not be consistent with the socio-economic scenario or be feasible. This paper shows, therefore, that changes in hydrological regime are important for the future of wetlands and that these may depend as much on the future socio-economic situation as the projected changes in climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "participatory turn" cutting across technical approaches for appraising environment, risk, science, and technology has been accompanied by intense debates over the desired nature, extent, and quality of public engagement in science. Burgeoning work evaluating the effectiveness of such processes and the social study of science in society more generally is notable, however, for lacking systematic understanding of the very actors shaping these new forms of science- society interaction. This paper addresses this lacuna by drawing on United Kingdom based in-depth empirical research that made space for participatory appraisal experts to reflect on effective practice and novel questions of competence, expertise, and citizen-specialist relations within analytic-deliberative processes. Emerging practitioner principles warn that existing participatory models have not sufficiently considered constructivist perspectives on knowledge, analysis, and deliberation. Effective participatory appraisal under uncertainty needs to guard against the "technocracy of participation" by opening up to diversity, difference, antagonism, and uncertainties/indeterminacies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Managed realignment (MR) is a ‘soft’ engineering technique that involves the deliberate landwards retreat of the existing line of coastal defence and subsequent tidal inundation of land. Managed realignment has been established worldwide for over 30 years and its goals may include habitat restoration, recovery of biodiversity and sustainable coastal defence. In southeast England in particular, an increasing number of MR sites (20–110ha) have been commissioned in the last decade in response to increasing coastal habitat loss and sea-level rise. Following initial sea wall breaching and site flooding, monitoring of these sites is usually carried out for a period of 5 years and during this time changes in ecosystem structure can be easily observed. However, there is a poor understanding of the long-term effects of flooding on soil physicochemical parameters including sediment geochemistry and geochemical cycling, nutrient fluxes and soil maturation processes. Such physical and chemical changes may continue to take place over time-scales exceeding 5 years and therefore current monitoring practices may not be sufficient. This paper examines the changes in the physicochemical parameters of sediments in vertical core sections at the Orplands Farm MR site, Blackwater Estuary, Essex, 8 years after its flooding in 1995. Post-breach sediment accumulation rates at the site have been determined and a multi-proxy approach has been used to identify a pre-breach land surface. Soil development and the vertical distribution of saltmarsh plants following breaching have also been examined. The species saturation index approach has been used to provide an indication of the success of MR at this site. The pre-breach land surface was identified at 4–6cm depth indicating a sediment accumulation rate ca. 0.75cma−1 since the site was breached in 1995. This sedimentation rate exceeds the regional sea-level rise of 0.1–0.3cma−1 and hence marsh development at the site is expected to continue in the short term. The examination of physicochemical parameters with depth indicates that the pre-breach land surface forms a barrier that may inhibit vertical tidal flushing, nutrient transfer and contaminant removal. The vegetation was mostly a pioneer and low-mid marsh assemblage typical of the area, although the species saturation index is low compared to other European sites and this may be attributed to a range of factors including poor drainage at the site and reduced seed availability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper develops a comprehensive and objective picture of bird distributions relative to habitats across Britain. Bird species presence/absence data from an extensive field survey and habitat data from the remotely sensed UK Land Cover Map 2000 were analysed in 36,920 tetrads (2km×2km) across Britain (a 65% sample of Britain''s c. 240000km2). Cluster analysis linked birds to generalised landscapes based on distinctive habitat assemblages. Maps of the clusters showed strong regional patterns associated with the habitat assemblages. Cluster centroid coordinates for each bird species and each habitat were combined across clusters to derive individualised bird–habitat preference indices and examine the importance of individual habitats for each bird species. Even rare species and scarce habitats showed successful linkages. Results were assessed against published accounts of bird–habitat relations. Objective corroboration strongly supported the associations. Relatively scarce coastal and wetland habitats proved particularly important for many birds. However, extensive arable farmland and woodland habitats were also favoured by many species, despite reported declines in bird numbers in these habitats. The fact that habitat-specialists do not or cannot move habitat is perhaps a reason for declining numbers where habitats have become unsuitable. This study showed that there are unifying principles determining bird–habitat relations which apply and can be quantified at the national scale, and which corroborate and complement the cumulative knowledge of many and varied surveys and ecological studies. This ‘generality’ suggests that we may be able, reliably and objectively, to integrate and scale up such disparate studies to the national scale, using this generalised framework. It also suggests the potential for a landscape ecology approach to bird–habitat analyses. Such developments will be important steps in building models to develop and test the sustainable management of landscapes for birds. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper explores the economic effects of biodiversity loss on marketable agricultural output for intensive agricultural systems, which require an increasing level of artificial capital inputs. A theoretical bio-economic model is used to derive a hypothesis about the effect of the state of biodiversity on the optimal crop output both in the longer run and in the transitional path towards the steady-state equilibrium. The hypothesised positive relationship between biodiversity stock and optimal levels of crop output is empirically tested using a stochastic production frontier approach, based on data from a panel of UK specialised cereal farms for the period 1989–2000. The results support the theoretical hypothesis. Increases in biodiversity can lead to a continual outward shift in the output frontier (although at a decreasing rate), controlling for the relevant set of labour and capital inputs. Agricultural transition towards biodiversity conservation may be consistent with an increase in crop output in already biodiversity-poor modern agricultural landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finding an optimal balance between livestock production and grazing impact on animal diversity is important for the development of sustainable grazing systems. This paper tests the hypothesis that extensification of grazing management enhances animal diversity. Similar treatments were applied over a period of three years to sites in the UK, France, Germany and Italy. There were three treatments at each site: moderate grazing intensity with a commercial breed (MC), lenient grazing intensity with a commercial breed (LC) and lenient grazing intensity with a traditional breed (LT). Animal diversity was studied at the species level for birds, hares, butterflies and grasshoppers, and at higher taxonomic level for ground-dwelling arthropods. Bird and hare numbers were low and showed no overall treatment effects. Species richness and abundance of butterflies and grasshoppers were higher for treatment LC than for treatment MC, both for species preferring short open grasslands and those preferring tall grasslands. There was no difference in the impact of commercial or traditional breeds. Most ground-dwelling arthropod groups did not show consistent treatment effects but some taxa showed site-specific responses, generally indicating a greater abundance at lenient grazing intensity. Overall, the study showed that lenient grazing intensity enhanced animal diversity on grasslands at a small scale within 3 years. By comparison, the effect of livestock breed differences was negligible. Follow-up research is needed to elucidate the processes leading to increased biodiversity in patch mosaics and to establish the generality of these findings at larger spatial scales and longer time scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since their inception in 1980 the concept of biodiversity and the practical techniques of biodiversity conservation have experienced a meteoric rise in popularity as a mode of understanding and governing the environment. This paper draws on concepts from science studies and posthumanist geography to outline a new approach to biodiversity. In contrast to the objective, disembodied and panoptic definition offered in the official documentation, it explores what biodiversity comes to mean in practice in a UK context. It argues that biodiversity must be understood as the discursive and material outcome of a socio-material assemblage of people, practices, technologies and other non-humans. It then applies this understanding to examine the scope of the assemblage that performs UK biodiversity conservation. In so doing it maps a set of taxonomic divisions. Drawing on empirical fieldwork, it examines one particular arena within this assemblage—species surveillance—and identifies the importance of the detectability of a species and taxonomic divisions in resources for accounting for these partialities. In conclusion, it reflects upon the benefits of this new approach for understanding biodiversity and biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the relationship between ecological change and human use in Atlantic oakwoods during the last millennium. Information on vegetation change derived from high resolution pollen analytical studies can sometimes be satisfactorily linked with localised documentary evidence of historical woodland management. Key findings based on this approach using case studies of individual woods in Lorn are presented. Relatively diverse woods, probably containing old-growth, were transformed in the medieval period into disturbed open stands used for pasturage and local domestic wood supply. Around or prior to 1700 AD commercial management began and modes of exploitation changed so that, for a period until the late 19th or early 20th century, stands were cropped intensively. In the most recent 100 years or so, use of the woods has been relatively minor except as a grazing resource. The consequences of this history for the development of the current condition and character of Atlantic oakwood resources are discussed with reference to elements of woodland biodiversity such as arboreal species composition and Atlantic bryophyte assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In line with the tenets of sustainable development, environmental policy has privileged action at the local level. This paper explores how the local has been manifested in practice, drawing upon an extensive qualitative study of biodiversity action planning in Birmingham, UK, undertaken between 1999 and 2002. Analysis highlights the embedded and geographically uneven character of the process, and a number of local path dependencies are identified that act to both constrain and enable the process. It is concluded that environmental policy tends to accept the positive rhetoric of local action rather uncritically. In practice, the local is manifested in a number of different ways, with highly heterogeneous effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores whether the introduction of an agri-environmental scheme has altered the course of long-term trends in plant species abundance in the Somerset Levels and Moors Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA), UK. A semi-quantitative approach has been taken which integrates disparate but important historical datasets relating to flora and land management with more contemporary digital information. Species datasets from four time periods throughout the 20th century have been collated within a Geographic Information System and analysed with respect to ancillary data relating to elevation, under-drainage and ESA designation. Qualitative reconstruction of the historical ecology of this internationally important area of lowland wet grassland showed that a steady decline in abundance and extent of key components of the flora had already started by 1900. Analysis of historical under-drainage records dating from 1940s to 1980s showed a clear link between the length of time an area had been under-drained and the subsequent diversity of flora recorded in later surveys. In addition, the relative persistence of the rarer components of the wetland flora between surveys in 1980 and 1997 was related to the spatial pattern of under-drainage on the site since 1940. When overall species diversity was compared before and after ESA designation (1980–1997) there was some evidence of an increase in the number of species present and their spatial extent. The historical dataset provided useful contextual information with respect to species trends and allowed the interpretation of contemporary datasets to be placed within a longer timeframe. This pilot study using 18 species gives some evidence that long-established trends in species decline in the Somerset Levels and Moors ESA are starting to be reversed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ponds are common landscape features but have been poorly studied compared to other freshwater habitats in the UK, despite their high frequency of occurrence. In the last century, many ponds have been lost and those that remain face increasing pressure due to agricultural land drainage, pollution and urban development. However, ponds provide important habitats for diverse floral and faunal communities, including a number of rare taxa of conservation interest. This paper examines the biodiversity and wider environmental value of ponds, with particular reference to the aquatic invertebrate and amphibian communities they support, and the adverse impact of anthropogenic activity on their aquatic habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lowland multiple-channel rivers are characterised by floodplain-corridor heterogeneity, high ecological and heritage value, and can be in quasi-stable states. This holistic study of a surviving temperate zone example (Culm, UK) uses geomorphological mapping, 14C, direct sediment dating (OSL, fallout radionuclides), and palaeoecology. This reveals the evolution of a channel-floodplain system from an initial braided state in the Late Pleistocene to its late Holocene anastomosing state. After the Pleistocene-Holocene transition the reduced channel system incised into its braid-plain, only able to rework gravels locally due to reduced competence in relation to inherited bounding sediment calibre. This resulted in the creation of terrace islands, palaeochannels, and a stable anastomosing pattern dominated by channel junctions, bifurcations and palaeochannel intersections. Survey, coring and excavation reveal a persistence of mid-channel bars and riffles at channel junctions, and where channels crossed palaeochannel fills. In common with most other European lowland rivers this system evolves in the later Holocene due to both climate and catchment changes with a major hydrological critical transition in the mid-Holocene (c. 5300 BP). However, in the case of the Culm, the increase in fine sediment supply often seen in lowland catchments in the Middle-Late Holocene, occurred later, and was insufficient to convert the system to a single medium-low sinuosity channel-floodplain. This allowed the persistence of high heterogeneity and biodiversity (including the persistence of riffle beetles) as part of multiple-scales of non-uniformity. Indeed the pool-riffle persistence is an example of this system's non-uniformity, being due, at least in part, to the effects of previous channel history. This paper reveals why this river survived in a multichannel state, and by implication, why others did not. These results are being used in the bespoke eco-heritage management of the Culm, but could also inform the restoration of other former multi-channel lowland temperate river systems worldwide. • Anastomosing channel system in SW England in quasi-equilibrium due to co-occurrence of inherited boundary conditions with dynamic fluvial processes. • Temporal pattern of channel abandonments reflects climate late-Holocene climate change and late rise in fine-sediment supply. • Simple catchment model suggests that mid Holocene low discharge promoted lack of channel change and sedimentation. • Some riffles/mid channel bars formed by fluvial response to inherited floodplain features. • Persistence of complex channel pattern promoted high biodiversity including persistence of riffle beetle species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The duration, intensity and frequency of hydrological droughts are predicted to increase significantly over the 21st century globally, threatening the long-term stability of lotic communities. In this paper we examine the recovery and recolonization of macroinvertebrate taxa in ephemeral and near perennial reaches of the River Lathkill (UK) after a supra-seasonal drought event. Following flow resumption, species accumulation (recolonization) occurred rapidly over a 4-month period, with a steady increase observed thereafter. Taxonomic richness was significantly higher in the section with near perennial flow after the first month of the study than the naturally ephemeral reach. Serial correlation was observed in the near perennial section but not in the upstream ephemeral reach. Serial correlation in the near perennial section may reflect: (1) the ongoing process of recovery or (2) the macroinvertebrate community following a new ecological trajectory. Our results suggest that supra-seasonal droughts may cause initial reductions in lotic diversity during stream desiccation events but may re-set ecological succession and/or temporarily provide new ecological niches, thereby supporting increased taxonomic diversity when the full range of hydrological conditions are considered. Quantifying the recovery of ecological communities following supra-seasonal drought can provide information to help develop ecologically effective conservation and management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last century, the numbers of sheep in Britain have increased significantly. Today a large proportion of the total flock is concentrated in the uplands. In terms of wildlife and landscape, Britain's uplands are among the most vulnerable areas. Poor, thin soils, high rainfall, and extremes of climate and slope increase their vulnerability. Damage to land in the uplands is also likely to have adverse effects downstream. In particular fisheries, water resources and flooddefences are likely to be put at risk. It is widely recognized that the increased numbers of stock have led to a reduction in biodiversity in the uplands. It is less widely recognized that they may also have caused soil erosion, riverbank erosion, increased run-off, reduced aquifer recharge and low river flows. Ultimately, the process of desertification (severe and catastrophic soil erosion) results in hillsides that have been stripped of their vegetation and soils, a process which is accelerating in Britain's uplands. This paper considers the problem by highlighting the processes involved and by presenting case studies from Britain and the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]