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This paper examines 3 of Carmen Martín Gaite’s texts that unfold in New York: her posthumously published collage notebookVisión de Nueva York(2005), the poem “Todo es un cuento roto en Nueva York” (1983) and the short novelCaperucita en Manhattan(1990). Through the critical lenses of Lefebvre, de Certeau, Baudrillard, Wilson and others, this paper explores how Martín Gaite depicts women’s spatial practice, as they make their way out of interior spaces to access urban space. By focusing on collages inVisión de Nueva Yorkthat contain windows or personal photographs, one can observe that, as time passes, the author’s assemblages communicate an increased sense of belonging after her initial anxiety about inhabiting a new city. Connections can be drawn among specific pages ofVisión de Nueva Yorkand the poem “Todo es un cuento roto en Nueva York”, where it is possible to see how the author develops ideas that she will later use inCaperucita en Manhattan. Scholars to date have paid little critical attention to Martín Gaite’s poetry, and this study attempts to fill in this gap by analyzing a poem that can be read as a precursor to her short novel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender differences in mobility patterns between women and men have long been acknowledged. This study analyses how these differences are reproduced in different urban and rural contexts. Using mobility data from a large travel survey taken in 2006 in Spain, we examine the differences between gender mobility through age, modal split and trip purposes. Special attention is paid to how territory shapes mobility and how these territorial settings differently affect gendered mobilities. The use of this data source allows the comparison of all trips made by the total population, including all means of transport. By taking a global view on mobility, the uneven relationships that men and women have with different means of transport become more visible. After disaggregating data by age and territorial settings, results show that women are using sustainable transport modes more often than men, and travelling for more diverse reasons. Gender is thus a fundamental variable in understanding modal split and, by extension, transport sustainability, in terms of energy consumption and the emission of greenhouse gases. From this point of view, we consider women's mobility knowledge and practices – typically related to the most sustainable means of transport – as factors with rising value that could effectively guide public policy in its way to promote more sustainable mobility patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Gender inequality is embedded in men's greater labor force participation and women's greater assumption of domestic roles. These inequalities are at the same time rooted in people's projections about their future lives, which influence future behaviors and values. The current research analyzes factors that influence these projections about the gender division of labor. A sample of 230 male and female Spanish university students reported their expectations about gender equality in their own future life. Data are also presented from 113 female university students from the United States, who completed the same measures. In an experimental design, these participants were also assigned to envision a possible future self as a married parent who was employed full-time, part-time, or not at all and whose educational attainment was a bachelor's degree or an advanced degree. When reporting expectations for their own future lives, more female than male Spanish participants expected part-time work, marriage, and parenthood. In most aspects, the experimental conditions, with their assignments to particular future situations, yielded the same expectations for the male and female participants. Notably, as hypothesized, participants of both sexes estimated that greater employment would enhance their attainment of career and respect goals but compromise family goals. We discuss the effects of employment expectations on the division of labor and gender equality, and additionally provide a cross-cultural interpretation of the differences observed between Spain and the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family-to-work conflict and enrichment indicate how participation in the family can influence negatively or positively participation at work, respectively. These experiences have been proved to co-occur within individuals at different levels and explain their well-being in a more nuanced way than conflict and enrichment in isolation. This study examines how Spanish women and men experience conflict and enrichment concurrently in different types and the consequences to their subjective health. First, in line with social role theory and the gendered division of household labor, we hypothesized on gender differences in the types of combined conflict and enrichment experiences. Second, incorporating theory on conservation of resources and identity, we hypothesized on the consequences of the specific types of combined conflict and enrichment to subjective health from a gender perspective. Using chi-square test on a sample of 236 women and 165 men, we confirmed that women and men differed in their types of combined conflict and enrichment experience: the beneficial (higher enrichment than conflict) and active types (similar higher conflict and enrichment) were mainly composed of women whereas the passive type (similar lower conflict and enrichment) was mainly composed of men. Using a MANOVA, we confirmed that the types of combined conflict and enrichment explained significant differences in subjective health in a similar way for women and men. Overall the findings debunk the belief that higher participation in family roles interferes with work more negatively among women, or that higher participation in family roles affect their health more negatively than men. We discuss theoretical and practical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extending the first Special Issue about gender research in the European country of Spain (Gartzia and Lopez-Zafra ), this Special Issue presents a new collection of original studies conducted in Spain that address some of the reasons for the maintenance of gender inequalities in this cultural context. Our approach is to capture the complexities that accompany changes toward gender equality in Spain as in other nations, whereby subtle forms of discrimination coexist with gender awareness-raising policies that ultimately allow for women's steadily advancement. With the view of providing background about the situation of gender research in Europe, we offer a review of the evolution of gender research across several European nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spain's evolution from an authoritarian regime to a well-established multi-governed democracy in a short period of time, has been accompanied by incredibly rapid social change and a varied (depending on the governmental period), but overall steady, consideration of gender equality as a political priority. This has also led to the rapid development and consolidation of women's and equality machineries-state feminism-and well-established policies devoted to promoting gender equality over the last three decades, both at national and regional governmental levels. This article aims to present a consolidated policy area which has enough elements to survive and to keep on developing, although in an increasingly fragmented manner, among regions, despite the ongoing economic crisis and the conservative political turn. Based on theories of state feminism and discursive politics, this article analyzes four important elements for understanding this claim and the evolution of national and regional Spanish gender policies and institutions during the last three decades: women's machinery, the relations between that machinery and women's and feminist movements, the policy discourses present in gender equality policies, and the policy instruments used by those machineries and policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with the mingling of the feminist movement and the Okupación (squatters) movement in Spain. The authors analyze the case of Eskalera Karakola, the most emblematic, long-standing feminist occupation in Spain. To do that, they did two in-depth interviews with key activists, and based on that, lay out feminism's(s') current debates and the reciprocal implications they have with the practice of okupación. They conclude that this collective displays the traits of third-wave feminism, seeking the sustainability of life and caring. These, together with the thirst for autonomy, are some of the convergences with the Okupa Movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present a research on intergenerational occupational mobility in Spain. We use the Survey of Living Conditions (INE, 2011) that allows us to obtain occupational information about parents and sons. Traditionally the comparison between occupation origin (parents) and destination (children) has been performed using male population. Then, our question is: How are the results about social mobility in Spain when the female population is included in Origin and Destination? As a result we show that the inclusion of women in models of social mobility change the usual conclusion about the constant fluidity over time. There is greater fluidity, not invariant over time, that reveals the new role that women have been acquiring in our society in recent decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the Spanish case, in this article we explore the connection between migration policies, family policies, gender regimes and the insertion of Latin American migrant women into the domestic work sector. Over the first decade of the twenty-first century, Latin America became the main region of origin of migrants who had settled in Spain, being women the first link in these migration chains. The main factors that have affected the configuration of this feminization are linked to migration policies and patterns of migration, the features of the welfare state, the characteristics of the labor market and the way in which gender organizes and stratifies migration and domestic work. The achievement of national middle class women's rights to conciliate their professional and family life through outsourcing domestic work to "non-national" women also brings with it a deep inequality in terms of citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As Spain experienced rapid societal and gender equality changes after the end of the dictatorship in 1975, the development of gender equality in Spain has differed from other European countries and the United States. Therefore, the results of Spanish studies conducted on gender and leadership might differ from those conducted in countries with other historical backgrounds such as other European countries or the United States. We systematically reviewed the current theoretical and empirical literature on gender and leadership with a special emphasis on this comparison. Thereby, we focused on four essential aspects: (a) the underlying mechanism of gender inequality (e.g., traditional gender roles), (b) gender and leadership behavior, (c) the relation of female representation in top management and on boards with organizational performance, and d) female representation and non-performance-related organizational outcomes. Further, Spain is currently experiencing a severe economic crisis. On the one hand, such a crisis might provide a chance for gender equality development; on the other hand, it might trigger a regression toward traditional gender roles in society. Thus, in our discussion, we relate the results of our comparison to these two different but possible consequences of the crisis. To conclude, we outline directions for future research that we hope will provide answers to important questions in this area of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the framework of academic discussion, it is emerging the necessity to deal with the interaction between different inequalities in the public policy's design and implementation, being the intersectional approach a very interesting theoretical proposal. It has been detected, however, that more empiric analysis are needed in order to prove the obstacles and advances found in the public policies to implement the intersectionality between different inequalities. In this article, we analyze recent LGTB equality policies, study in the Catalan case in particular, to see how they conceive the relationship between inequalities, and to detect which are the main factors that interfere in the implementation of a intersectional model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes those gender aspects that made a difference between the repression of women and men during the early years of Franco's dictatorship. The analysis is presented from both, gender studies and political anthropology. This way these aspects will be linked up with the inherited political traditions during the Franco regime. The paper propose an explanation about the way in which the separation of women from the domestic domain, and their entrance in the political space as public subjects that occurred in Spain during the second Republic and the Civil War; was a hidden fact, covered up by the governmental repressive politics. This was an elaborated discourse of the historical narrative that the political role of women was reshaped and reconstructed as collectively inexistent. It was turn into a distortion, as a set of particular cases of delinquency and deviation. The construction of this discourse was based from the beginning on the establishment of certain practices such as the logic of the system of justice, as it will be demonstrated in the analysis of the trial reports of women. It is by the analysis of this file reports, understood as cultural creations, where there may be distinguished the system of a symbolic construction not capable consider women as a political subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article studies the determining factors of gender composition of the boards of large Spanish companies and presents a method to predict it. For this purpose, a multivariate analysis is run to identify the differences in the characteristics between firms without female directors and firms with two or more female directors or one female director if she is the chief executive officer (CEO) or chair. This research analyzes women's participation on Spanish boards in a period prior to the introduction of voluntary measures to boost female participation, so its results are not influenced by that development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Sección Femenina de la FET was founded in 1934 as part of the Spanish Falange. Starting in April 1937 the SF functioned as the sole secular women's organization of the Franco regime, employing a network of professional, provincial and local delegates throughout the country. Despite its adherence to a radical right-wing ideology and its functioning within an authoritarian regime membership within the SF offered many women a life of unusual public activism, both professionally and politically. The current paper offers a reading of the SF's gendered discourse, which takes into consideration the relationship between both its progressive and conservative elements. My contention is that in the case of the SF one cannot talk of a model of 'old-fashioned' femininity, which was replaced over the years by a model of 'modern' femininity, but rather about modernist and conservative elements, which existed in the organizational rhetoric side by side from the beginning. Within this context the 'modern' elements were highly significant and their definition was more or less constant as long as the messages were aimed at a population of a specific socio-economic standing and education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against a background of significant social change experienced by Spanish women from the 1960s onwards, new gender identities and conflicts have emerged. These factors have barely been taken into account in the research work done in Spain. This article looks into the conversations of young people concerning their relationship with risky sexual behaviour, recreational drug use and sexual identity. Drawing from a qualitative study of discussion groups and semi-structured interviews with young recreational drug users, the article suggests that there are at least two models of femininity among the recreational drug consumers that have taken part in this study. First there is a traditional romantic model whereby young women associated risky sexual behaviour with being in love or trusting in the partner. Here the young woman does not link her sexual behaviour to the effects of using recreational drugs but, rather, to the characteristics of her emotional relationship. Second, there is a model of new values and gender roles that are closer to those traditionally associated to males, where the young women use recreational drugs as a form of empowerment to take on new situations concerning their sexuality. The article analyses the perceptions of risk among the different identity groups, along with the negotiations to begin sexual relations and the use of the condom in these groups of recreational drug users. Issues for policy and practice are also briefly considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Catalina de Erauso's story "La historia de la monja alférez," written by herself, Catalina de Erauso recounts her adventures as a man, her later confession of being a woman and virgin, her pension from the king, and even the Pope's legitimization of her dressing as a man. The author examines this text in terms of its contribution and resistance to the construction of gender in Spain and the Spanish American colonies in the early 17th century. The transatlantic voyages open a space in which the figure of Catalina de Erauso transits from one gender category to another. With an emphasis on the prefix 'trans', reading the text through the lens of the 'transsexual' narrative creates new borders and limits, and accentuates the text as a site of struggle over gender identity. The 'transsexual' narrative can help us see the text not only as a site of transition and combination of social categories, but also for interrupting the binary structure of sex and gender that appears so natural today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the conflict of masculine ideals through a court case in the 1920s. It aims to show that as late as the 1920s, there was no clear replacement for the manly ideal that was currently symbolized. The popular case of the Gran Vía saw an ordinary man, José González de la Cámara, brought to trial for physically assaulting a young Colombian woman, María Otero, after harassing her in the street. The debate over the court case became a struggle to define the ideal Spanish man. The role of masculinity as a national symbol was problematic too. Unlike in other European countries, ideas about masculinity were deeply bound to political ideologies and local realities.

Spanish couples have found new ways of organising their productive and reproductive lives within the domestic sphere. The increasing role of women in the labour market provides the basis for these new domestic structures, yet few social policies have been advanced to create greater compatibility between the worlds of work and home. Mothers of the new generation have to think of strategies to reconcile their labour and family life, with the employment of domestic service emerging as one of the most significant alternatives in recent years. On the other hand, immigration has suffered many changes, the most important being its increase and its feminisation. This is the result of the transformations experienced by the countries of origin of the migrants, including free-movers from the European Union, as well as the consequence of the creation of a new demand for workers in the receiver countries. Female employers and domestic employees meet each other in one ‘home’ – that of the working Spanish mother – now characterised by ethnic or cultural diversity and the permanent negotiation of individual, familial and group identities. The article analyses the discourse of working mothers who employ domestic service to care for their children, as well as the discourse of female migrant/immigrant domestic workers from Eastern Europe, North Africa and Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at the relationship between family and employment from the perspective of working mothers. In a context of increasing convergence of women's activity all over Europe what makes a difference between countries is the extent to which women's new roles in paid work are being acknowledged through new practices in the family, social policies, perceptions and symbols. The concept of strategy is used as an analytical tool to understand how women manage their double role in everyday life. Working mothers' strategies to cope with both worlds can be considered as an indicator of the social recognition of women as workers. This hypothesis is examined taking the case of Spain as an example of an extreme contradiction between the new position of women in the labour market and the traditional social organization that does not seem to be concerned by the change. Spanish working mothers, most of them working full time, are developing a wide range of private, individual strategies to make their jobs compatible with family responsibilities. The main strategies are based on substitute mothers, who are either relatives - very often the mother of the working mother - or somebody hired to take care of the children. These kind of strategies raise, among other questions, the issue of the extent to which the organization of domestic life continues to be based on the traditional gendered family or if they can be a model for the future. Complementary strategies to do with the organisation of time, reducing distances between home, work and school, collective childcare and the help of men are also studied, as well as extreme strategies - taking the children to work or leaving them alone at home - and indirect strategies like delaying and reducing the number of children. Primary sources of information, both qualitative and quantitative are used, based on six discussion groups, twenty-five in-depth interviews and a 1,200 cases survey representative of Spanish working mothers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]