Search

We investigated how lateral erosion control, measured by novel photogrammetry techniques, is modified by the presence of Spartina spp. vegetation, sediment grain size, and the nutrient status of salt marshes across 230 km of the Italian Northern Adriatic coastline. Spartina spp. vegetation reduced erosion across our study sites. The effect was more pronounced in sandy soils, where erosion was reduced by 80% compared to 17% in silty soils. Erosion resistance was also enhanced by Spartina spp. root biomass. In the absence of vegetation, erosion resistance was enhanced by silt content, with mean erosion 72% lower in silty vs . sandy soils. We found no relevant relationships with nutrient status, likely due to overall high nutrient concentrations and low C:N ratios across all sites. Our results contribute to quantifying coastal protection ecosystem services provided by salt marshes in both sandy and silty sediments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of ecosystem engineering and biogeomorphic processes in shaping many aquatic and semi-aquatic landscapes is increasingly acknowledged. Ecosystem engineering and biogeomorphic landscape formation involves two critical processes: (1) species establishment, and (2) scale-dependent feedbacks, meaning that organisms improve their living conditions on a local scale but at the same time worsen them at larger scales. However, the influence of organism traits in combination with physical factors (e.g. hydrodynamics, sediments) on early establishment and successive development due to scale-dependent feedbacks is still unclear. As a model system, this was tested for salt marsh pioneer plants by conducting flume experiments: i ) on the influence of species-specific traits (such as stiffness) of two contrasting dominant pioneer species ( Spartina alterniflora and Scirpus mariqueter ) to withstand current-induced stress during establishment; and ii ) to study the impact of species-specific traits (stiffness) and physical forcing (water level, current stress) on the large-scale negative feedback at established tussocks (induced scour at tussock edges) of the two model species. The results indicate that, not only do species-specific plant traits, such as stiffness, exert a major control on species establishment thresholds, but also potentially physiologically triggered plant properties, such as adapted root morphology due to sediment properties. Moreover, the results show a clear relation between species-specific plant traits, abiotics (i.e. sediment, currents) and the magnitude of the large-scale negative scale-dependent feedback. These findings suggest that the ecosystem engineering ability, resulting from physical plant properties can be disadvantageous for plant survival through promoted dislodgement (stem stiffness increases the amount of drag experienced at the root system), underlying the importance of scale-dependent feedbacks on landscape development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: There is a growing recognition of the important role of scale-dependent feedback for biogeomorphological landscape formation, where organisms locally improve survival and growth but at the same time negatively affect organisms at larger distance. However, little is known on how scale-dependent bio-geomorphic feedback is influenced by organism traits in combination with abiotic forcing. This was studied by measuring in a flume, the flow patterns around patches of three contrasting marsh species (Spartina anglica, Puccinellia maritima and Salicornia procumbens), using the flow acceleration around vegetation patches and deceleration within vegetation patches as quantitative proxy for the negative and positive feedback to the vegetation performance. The importance of external forcing was assessed by comparing three realistic current velocities: 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3ms−1. Our results showed that the dense clonal growth of stiff Spartina anglica shoots caused strongest flow deviations, irrespective of the applied current velocity. In contrast, the more sparsely growing, shorter stiff shoots of Salicornia procumbens induced much less flow deviation, allowing more water to pass through and over the vegetation canopy. The dense but highly flexible shoots of Puccinellia maritima caused strong flow deviations at low velocities, which diminished at higher velocities due to bending of the vegetation. Overall, these hydrodynamic results demonstrate that plant species traits interact with environmental conditions in creating scale-dependent feedbacks explaining why the effects of vegetation on landscape formation in saltmarshes are species specific. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To unravel the relation between hydrodynamic forcing and the dynamics of the tidal flat–salt-marsh ecosystem, we compared hydrodynamic forcing in terms of proxies relevant to bed sediment motion for four tidal flat–salt-marsh ecosystems that were contrasting in terms of wind exposure (sheltered vs. exposed) and lateral development (shrinking vs. expanding). Wave and current field measurements on these four contrasting tidal flat and salt-marsh ecosystems indicated that the hydrodynamic forcing on the bottom sediment (bed shear stress) was strongly influenced by wind-generated waves, more so than by tidal- or wind-drive currents. The measurements further showed that the hydrodynamic forcing decreased considerably landward of the marsh cliff, highlighting a transition from vigorous (tidal flat and pioneer zone) to sluggish (mature marsh) fluid forcing. Spatial wave modeling using measured wind, revealed that the time-integrated wave forcing on the intertidal mudflat in front of the marsh (i.e., the potential bed sediment pickup) was a factor two higher for salt marshes that are laterally shrinking than for laterally expanding marshes, regardless of whether these marshes were exposed to or sheltered from the wind. The same result could not be obtained from a straightforward wind speed and fetch length approach for estimating wave forcing. This confirmed that wave force estimates required spatial modeling to be consistent with the sites trends of shrinking or expanding marshes and wind exposure is not enough to characterize the wave forcing at these sites. Seasonal changes in wave forcing identified from wind measurements potentially provide an alternative mechanism for marsh cliff formation. During the calm summer, fine sediments switches from the water column to the bed. During the following winter, fine sediment is retained within the vegetated regions while being returned to the water column from the bare tidal flats. The continuous slow upward growth of vegetated areas combined with the seasonal cyclic tidal flat elevations, could, during winter, cause a discontinuity at the bare/vegetated boundary. If this discontinuity grows large enough for plant die-off to occur, then a small cliff will form. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The objectives of the present study were twofold: (1) to identify spatial sedimentation and erosion patterns developing within patches of epibenthic structures (i.e. physical structures that protrude from the sediments, originating either from animals or plants) as a consequence of biophysical interactions; and (2) to assess the relevance of hydrodynamic flume studies for the long-term sediment dynamics in the field. We addressed these objectives by using patches of well-defined artificial structures (bamboo canes) for which we could easily monitor the long-term sediment dynamics in the field, measure the hydrodynamic effects in detail in the flume, and simulate the field and flume set-up with a commercially available hydrodynamic model. Two-year monitoring in the field showed that sedimentation was much larger in the high-density patches than the low-density ones. Within the high-density patches, comparable spatial patterns emerged at different field sites: erosion at the front and the side of the patches, and sedimentation more down-stream within the patches. The low-density patches showed no such patterns, and were generally characterised by some small-scale erosion directly around individual bamboo canes. Sedimentation and erosion in the field was well explained by the patterns in bed shear stress that were derived from our flume measurements. The 3D hydrodynamic modelling facilitated up-scaling of the flume results to the field, but failed to simulate accurately the effects at the leading edge. We conclude that: (A) field observations on sedimentation revealed interesting spatial patterns, but could not elucidate underlying processes; (B) detailed hydrodynamic measurements in a flume can elucidate these underlying processes, provided that appropriate scaling is being used; (C) flume studies are by definition not able to capture all spatial scales that are relevant for estuarine landscape formation and will always cause some flow artefacts; (D) hydrodynamic modelling offers a valuable tool to upscale flume observations, even though present models are not yet capable of fully reproducing all detailed spatial patterns; and (E) spatial heterogeneity is very important when looking at small-scale patches. There is a need for more spatially explicit and scale-dependent knowledge on bio-physical interactions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Seagrasses comprise 78 species and are rarely invasive. But the seagrass Halophila stipulacea , firstly recorded in the Caribbean in the year 2002, has spread quickly throughout the region. Previous works have described this species as invasive in the Caribbean, forming dense mats that exclude native seagrass species. During a reconnaissance field survey of Caribbean seagrass meadows at the islands of Bonaire and Sint Maarten in 2013, we observed that this species was only extremely dense at 5 out of 10 studied meadows. Compared to areas with sparse growth of H. stipulacea , these dense meadows showed consistently higher nutrient concentrations, as indicated by higher leaf tissue N contents of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum (dense when C:N < 22.5) and sediments (dense when %N > 11.3). Thus, the potential invasiveness of this non-native seagrass most likely depends on the environmental conditions, especially the nutrient concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In situ persistence of salt marshes in the face of sea-level rise relies on their ability to maintain substrate elevation through sufficient vertical accretion of sediment. However, sedimentation rates in salt marshes vary spatially and temporally, which complicates the assessment of their ability to keep up with sea-level rise. Here, we explore the spatial and temporal variation in sediment accumulation in a single back-barrier salt marsh site. Using one-time in situ measurements at the landscape scale, we obtained synoptic information of elevation and sediment thickness over the entire salt marsh in a chronosequence over centuries. Repeated measurements along short elevation transects (0.3–0.9 m +MHT) revealed decadal changes, complementing the broader marsh data with detailed information on elevation, thickness of the marsh deposits and accumulation rates. Thickness of the deposits was largely related to the elevation gradient: the sediment layer was thinner at the higher marsh (near the dunes and far away from the intertidal flats), and thicker at the lower marsh (near the intertidal flats). Moreover, the thickness of the layer increased with salt marsh age along the chronosequence, and age accounted for 72 % of variability in sediment accumulation. The rate of sediment accumulation was higher than the local rate of sea-level rise in the younger marsh, whereas it was equal to the rate of sea-level rise in the older marsh. In the older salt marsh, sediment accumulation was lower, possibly due to autocompaction in the thicker, older layers. Both at the landscape scale and along short elevation transects within individual drainage basins, sediment accumulation decreased with distance to sediment supply routes. However, their relative importance depended on the scale of observation. Distance to creeks accounted for 17 % of the variability in sediment accumulation at the landscape scale, compared to 4 % at the smaller scale. Similarly, the influence of distance to intertidal flats varied from 1 % at the landscape scale to 13 % at the smaller scale. Our main findings indicate that lower-elevation older marshes and higher-elevation younger marshes far away from sediment sources are at risk of not keeping pace with the local rate of sea-level rise and are potentially vulnerable to increased flooding. • Spatial and temporal scales are combined to understand salt-marsh sedimentation. • Marsh age is an important factor for sedimentation rates; other factors depend on spatial scale. • Low-elevation old marshes and high-elevation young marshes more at risk with sea-level rise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetation is increasingly recognized as an important control on flow and landform patterns in many landscape types. Field studies on the landscape-scale effect of vegetation in fluvial and tidal floodplains are relatively scarce while insights are especially based on flume and numerical models. Large-scale flow patterns and landforms were measured on a vegetated tidal marsh and unvegetated tidal flat, in particular dynamic changes in two-dimensional water surface slopes, flow velocities and directions on an extensive network of locations. It was found that during flooding and drainage of the vegetated tidal marsh, the flow was concentrated in and routed through bare tidal channels, whereas on the unvegetated tidal flat more homogeneous sheet flow occurred. On the marsh the peak flow velocities were lower on the vegetated platform (< 0.1 m/s) compared to their adjacent tidal channels (0.3− 1 m/s), while on the bare tidal flat the channel and platform flow velocities were not significantly different from each other (0.1 − 0.4 m/s). These differences in flow patterns have important implications for the landform differences between vegetated and bare tidal floodplains: (1) for tidal channels with channel widths smaller than 10 m, width-to-depth ratios (= β) were smaller for the tidal marsh channels (β ~ 3) than for the tidal flat channels (β ~ 9) (due to flow concentration towards the channels in the marsh); and (2) the vegetated marsh platform exhibits a clear levee-basin topography (due to vegetation-induced platform flooding from the channels), while there is no levee-basin topography on the bare flat (due to sheet flow). This study not only emphasizes previous findings on the direct effect of vegetation, acting as frictional constraints on flow in tidal marshes, it also suggests that the indirect effect of vegetation, namely its induced micro-topography, influences the flooding and drainage behavior of marsh systems potentially altering feedbacks caused by direct vegetation effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tidal-scale biophysical interactions establish particular flow routing and sedimentation patterns in coastal mangroves. Sluggish water flows through the mangrove vegetation and enhanced sediment deposition are essential to maintain these valuable ecosystems, thereby enabling their contribution to coastal protection and stabilization. Spatially explicit field observations of tidal-scale flow routing and sediment deposition were obtained in an elevated mangrove stand dissected by tidal creeks, located in the Trang river estuary at the Thai Andaman coast. An accurate and efficient depth-averaged process-based numerical model of this field site was developed in Delft3D to study the contributions of various biogeophysical mangrove settings to the observed tidal dynamics and to study the impacts of changes of these environmental conditions. The creeks are found to form the major pathway for the tidal inflow during the lower tides, while the sheltered interior of the forest is an effective sediment sink during the higher tides. A numerical sensitivity analysis of the initial response—or adaptive capacity—of the studied mangrove system to instantaneous environmental changes reveals the stable state of the study site: deposition rates are largely imposed by the topography and relative elevation, while they are rather independent of the vegetation density. Deeper inundations of the mangroves favor sheet flows through the forest and spatially averaged deposition rates decrease, particularly when this coincides with decreasing vegetation densities. Moreover, the sediment trapping efficiency is found to reduce significantly with diminishing sediment inputs and with mangrove area losses. These results clearly indicate the sensitivity of mangroves' ecosystem engineering ability—in terms of sedimentation—to climate change and anthropogenic threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Seagrasses have declined at a global scale due to light reduction and toxicity events, caused by eutrophication and increased sediment loading. Although several studies have tested effects of light reduction and toxicants on seagrasses, there is at present no information available on their interacting effects. In a full-factorial 5-day laboratory experiment, we studied short-term interactive effects of light conditions, pH and reduced nitrogen (NH x ) in the water layer, mimicking pulses of river discharge, on the tropical early successional species Halodule uninervis and the late successional species Thalassia hemprichii. In contrast to recent results reported for the temperate species Zostera marina, increased NH x supply did not affect leaf mortality or photochemical efficiency in H. uninervis and in 7 out of 8 treatments for T. hemprichii. However, both tropical species demonstrated striking differences in nitrogen accumulation, free amino acid composition and free NH3 accumulation. The increase in tissue nitrogen content was two times higher for H. uninervis than for T. hemprichii. Nitrogen stored as free amino acids (especially asparagine) only increased in H. uninervis. High pH only affected T. hemprichii, but only when not shaded, by doubling its free NH3 concentrations, concomitantly decreasing its photosynthetic efficiency. Our results indicate that the early successional H. uninervis has higher tolerance to high NH x loads as compared to the late successional T. hemprichii. H. uninervis was better able to avoid toxic internal NH x levels by further assimilating glutamine into asparagine in contrast to T. hemprichii. Moreover, both tropical species seem to cope much better with high NH x than the temperate Z. marina. The implications for the distribution and succession of seagrass species under high nutrient loads are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The coastal environment shows a wide range of bed patterns, for which sandwaves and sandbanks are among the most common. Less known in this context is the high benthic diversity in the coastal environment, which gives rise to the question to what extend the benthos interacts with the shape of the seabed. This paper reviews field and flume experiments on bio-geomorphological influences between benthos and sediment and tests the hypothesis that both the occurrence and the dimensions of sandwaves are dependent on the benthic diversity in the North Sea. Mathematical inclusions to account for biological activity in idealized models reveal that biota is able to influence the wavelength of sandwaves significantly, compared to the default case. More importantly, the models indicate that biota is able to induce bed patterns under conditions when the physical parameters suggest a stable flat bed and vice versa. Present model explorations indicate that future research should focus on the parameterization of subtidal biological activity on sediment dynamics and thereby on seabed patterns. Such knowledge will enable process-based modeling of the spatial and temporal variation in biological activity on seabed morphodynamics and validate the proposed modeling approach with field measurements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Eight of thirteen typhoons occurred in 2016 impacted the Yangtze Delta wetland. • The impacting typhoons were 450–2000 km away from the delta. • The remote typhoons caused 2–5 times maximum increases in sediment dynamics. Intertidal wetlands are widely considered to be vulnerable to storm impacts. While much attention has been given to the effect of hurricane/typhoon landfall on local erosion/deposition in intertidal wetlands, less is known about how distant hurricanes/typhoons can affect an intertidal wetland or about the comprehensive effects of hurricanes/typhoons on hydrodynamics, sediment transport and seabed stability. Here, we investigate the possible impacts of thirteen typhoons that occurred in the western Pacific during summer–autumn 2016 on an intertidal wetland in the Yangtze Delta. We detected the impacts from eight of the typhoons during half of their duration when these typhoons were 450–2000 km away (nearest distance ever for each typhoon) from the delta. These remote typhoons caused 2–5 times maximum increases in hydrodynamics and suspended sediment concentration. Correspondingly, considerable net mudflat erosion and marsh deposition were observed. We therefore conclude that intertidal wetlands can be strongly affected by typhoons, even those passing by hundreds of kilometres away. These findings contribute to understand how far and in what extent hurricanes/typhoons can affect intertidal wetlands and to increase knowledge needed for coastal management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many organisms rely on chemical signals and cues to determine habitat suitability and safety. Chemical signals can mediate many interactions, including those between predators and their prey. Altering prey behaviour, these non-consumptive effects (NCEs) can influence population and community dynamics. Understanding how NCEs influence early life history stages, such as 'decisions' of benthic species with planktonic larvae about where to settle, can provide useful information on the ecological functioning of these systems as well as the management for commercial usage, although most studies have so far focused on intertidal systems which are already subject to a set of stressful conditions. With a shallow subtidal field experiment we investigated NCEs of the common starfish Asterias rubens on one of its main preys, the blue mussels Mytilus edulis. We tested the hypotheses that (1) the presence of starfish reduces mussels settlement and that (2) the mussels that settle will invest more energy towards induced defences than to growth, and will thus remain smaller than mussels settling in an area without starfish. Two independent trials revealed a significant reduction of mussel spat on the collectors in the presence of starfish after a two-week deployment period. There was however no effect of starfish on the size distribution of the mussel spat. The delayed observation of effects of starfish, absent after the first week but evident afterwards, suggests a time dependency of NCE's on spat settlement. Harnessing this ecologically important information has the potential to increase yield of mussel seeds available for fisheries by either removing starfish from the ground-based settling areas at the onset and for the duration of spatfall or by using floating substrates that are away from the bottom-bound starfish. Moreover, these results also underlines the potential of using predator cues in the application for sustainable natural antifouling compounds in situations with low recruitment pressures. Highlights • Most studies of predator cues on recruitment focus on single time points. • We used a well-studied predator-prey system to identify indirect effects. • Recruitment of mussels was significantly reduced by starfish cues. • This reduction was magnified over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Berau Continental Shelf (BCS) in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, harbours various tropical marine ecosystems, including mangroves, seagrass meadows and coral reefs. These ecosystem are located partly within reach of the Berau River plume, which may affect ecosystem health through exposure to land-derived sediments, nutrients and pollutants carried by the plume. This study aims (1) to assess the exposure risk of the BCS coastal ecosystems to river plume water, measured as exposure time to three different salinity levels, (2) to identify the relationships between these salinity levels and the abundance and diversity of coral and seagrass ecosystems, and (3) to determine a suitable indicator for the impacts of salinity on coral reef and seagrass health. We analysed hydrodynamic models, classified salinity levels, and quantified the correlations between the salinity model parameters and ecological metrics for the BCS systems. An Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) analysis revealed three modes of river plume dispersal patterns, which strongly reflect monsoon seasonality. The first mode, explaining 39% of the variability, was associated with the southward movement of the plume due to northerly winds, while the second and third modes (explaining 29% and 26% of the variability, respectively) were associated with the northeastward migration of the plume related to southwesterly and southerly winds. Exposure to low salinity showed higher correlations with biological indicators than mean salinity, indicating that low salinity is a more suitable indicator for coastal ecosystem health. Significant correlations ( R 2 ) were found between exposure time to low salinity (days with salinity values below 25 PSU) with coral cover, coral species richness, seagrass cover, the number of seagrass species, seagrass leaf phosphorus, nitrogen, C:N ratio and iron content. By comparing the correlation coefficients and the slopes of the regression lines, our study suggests that coral reefs are more susceptible to low salinity levels exposure than seagrass meadows. Regarding the risk of corals being exposed to low salinity, nearshore and northern barrier reefs were classified as “high risk”, the middle barrier reef as “medium to high risk” and southern barrier reefs as “medium risk”. Further offshore, the oceanic reefs were classified as “low risk”. Regarding the seagrass meadows, the nearshore region was categorized as “high risk”, the barrier reef as “medium to low risk” and oceanic reefs as “low risk”. This study contributes to assessing the potential impacts of salinity on the BCS ecosystems, and further provides a knowledge base for marine conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A short-term intensive measurement campaign focused on flow, turbulence, suspended particle concentration, floc dynamics and settling velocities were carried out in a brackish intertidal creek draining into the main channel of the Scheldt estuary. We compare in situ estimates of settling velocities between a laser diffraction (LISST) and an acoustic Doppler technique (ADV) at 20 and 40 cm above bottom (cmab). The temporal variation in settling velocity estimated were compared over one tidal cycle, with a maximum flood velocity of 0.46 m s −1 , a maximum horizontal ebb velocity of 0.35 m s −1 and a maximum water depth at high water slack of 2.41 m. Results suggest that flocculation processes play an important role in controlling sediment transport processes in the measured intertidal creek. During high-water slack, particles flocculated to sizes up to 190 μm, whereas at maximum flood and maximum ebb tidal stage floc sizes only reached up to 55 μm and 71 μm respectively. These large differences indicate that flocculation processes are mainly governed by turbulence-induced shear rate. In this study, we specifically recognize the importance of along-channel gradients that places constraints on the application of the acoustic Doppler technique due to conflicts with the underlying assumptions. Along-channel gradients were assessed by additional measurements at a second location and scaling arguments which could be used as an indication whether the Reynolds-flux method is applicable. We further show the potential impact of along-channel advection of flocs out of equilibrium with local hydrodynamics influencing overall floc sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetation-wave interactions are critical in determining the capacity of coastal salt marshes to reduce wave energy (wave dissipation), enhance sedimentation and protect the shoreline from erosion. While vegetation-induced wave dissipation is increasingly recognized in low wave energy environments, little is known about: (i) the effect of vegetation on wave dissipation during storms when wave heights and water levels are highest; and (ii) the ability of different plant species to dissipate waves and to maintain their integrity under storm surge conditions. Experiments undertaken in one of the world’s largest wave flumes allowed, for the first time, the study of vegetation-wave interactions at near-field scale, under wave heights ranging from 0.1–0.9 m (corresponding to orbital velocities of 2–91 cm s −1 ) and water depths up to 2 m, in canopies of two typical NW European salt marsh grasses: Puccinellia maritima ( Puccinellia ) and Elymus athericus ( Elymus ). Results indicate that plant flexibility and height, as well as wave conditions and water depth, play an important role in determining how salt marsh vegetation interacts with waves. Under medium conditions (orbital velocity 42–63 cm s −1 ), the effect of Puccinellia and Elymus on wave orbital velocities varied with water depth and wave period. Under high water levels (2 m) and long wave periods (4.1 s), within the flexible, low-growing Puccinellia canopy orbital velocity was reduced by 35% while in the more rigid, tall Elymus canopy deflection and folding of stems occurred and no significant effect on orbital velocity was found. Under low water levels (1 m) and short wave periods (2.9 s) by contrast, Elymus reduced near-bed velocity more than Puccinellia . Under high orbital velocities (≥74 cm s −1 ), flattening of the canopy and an increase of orbital velocity was observed for both Puccinellia and Elymus . Stem folding and breakage in Elymus at a threshold orbital velocity ≥ 42 cm s −1 coincided with a levelling-off in the marsh wave dissipation capacity, while Puccinellia survived even extreme wave forces without physical damage. These findings suggest a species-specific control of wave dissipation by salt marshes which can potentially inform predictions of the wave dissipation capacity of marshes and their resilience to storm surge conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important ecosystem service of tropical coastal vegetation including seagrass beds and mangrove forests is their ability to accumulate carbon. Here we attempt to establish the driving forces for the accumulation of surface organic carbon in southern Thailand coastal systems. Across 12 sites we found that in line with expectations, seagrass beds (0.6 ± 0.09%) and mangrove forests (0.9 ± 0.3%) had higher organic carbon in the surface (top 5 cm) sediment than un-vegetated mudflats (0.4 ± 0.04%). Unexpectedly, however, mangrove forests in this region retained organic carbon, rather than outwell it, under normal tidal conditions. No relationship was found between organic carbon and substrate grain size. The most interesting finding of our study was that climax and pioneer seagrass species retained more carbon than mixed-species meadows, suggesting that plant morphology and meadow characteristics can be important factors in organic carbon accumulation. Insights such as these are important in developing carbon management strategies involving coastal ecosystems such as offsetting of carbon emissions. The ability of tropical coastal vegetation to sequester carbon is an important aspect for valuing the ecosystems. Our results provide some initial insight into the factors affecting carbon sequestration in these ecosystems, but also highlight the need for further research on a global scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrasses need dissolved nutrients to maintain their productivity through uptake processes, from substrate pore-water via their roots and/or from the water column via their leaves. Here, we present the first study of exchanges of dissolved nutrients between pore water and the water column in the vicinity of seagrass canopies. We address the following research questions, using a laboratory flume experiment: (1) How does solute exchange between the water column and substrate pore water vary spatially within seagrass patches? (2) How does seagrass leaf length affect this solute exchange? (3) How does the measured rate of solute exchange compare with seagrasses' rates of uptake of dissolved nutrients? Our results indicate that solute intrusion from the water column into the substrate pore water is highest in the area around seagrass patches' leading edges, where flow deceleration is strongest, and decreases approximately linearly with downstream distance into the patch. The decrease in measured flow speed in the canopy fits well the predictions of previously reported models of arrays of rigid obstacles. The length of the region in which the concentration of solute that has infiltrated into the substrate at the upstream end of the seagrass patches is similar to the length scale predicted from model estimates of infiltration rate (based on the substrate permeability) and the length of time over 24-h runs. We conclude that the mechanism we identify only pertains near canopy edges, and therefore that other mechanisms must govern nutrient supply in the interior of seagrass meadows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing interest in incorporating nature-based solutions and ecosystem services as part of coastal protection schemes has recently increased in the literature and focused on the understanding and modeling of wave and current interactions with natural coastal landforms, such as salt marshes. With this purpose, using flumes or basins has been one of the preferred options in experimental modeling under controlled conditions. However, due to the inherent complexities associated with this approach, most of the previously published experiments are based on wave-flume experiments using vegetation mimics. The current demand for understanding the relevant processes requires a step forward, which includes experimental modeling with real vegetation on both a relevant large scale and at a sufficiently large water depth. In response to foreseen needs, this study provides useful guidance based on the experience gained from a unique set of experiments conducted in a large wave basin, including wave and current interaction with real salt marsh vegetation. This study reports on plant collection and growing strategies, plant properties, physical set-up, instrumentation, and experimental strategy and dismantling, providing guidelines aimed at being helpful for future experimental efforts at the interface of engineering and ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the influence of different flow and vegetation parameters on the wave attenuation provided by two contrasting salt marsh species: Puccinellia maritima and Spartina anglica . Different water depths and wave parameters (height and period) are considered for both regular and irregular waves with and without an underlying uniform current coming from different directions. The study of the submergence ratio ( h / h v ) influence shows that wave damping coefficient rapidly decreases as the plant submergence ratio increases. The high nonlinearities found in the wave–current interaction lead to different wave damping patterns in comparison to wave-only conditions. A smaller wave damping is found for waves and current acting in the same direction and an increase in the wave damping rate is obtained for waves and current flowing in the opposite direction. These wave and current tests allow for the studying of the energy dissipation produced by the vegetation, increasing our knowledge about flow and plant interaction in estuarine conditions. The biomechanical properties of the two real salt marshes used in the experiments are also evaluated and related to wave damping revealing a higher attenuation for stiffer vegetation. Both, the vegetation density and the biomass strongly influence wave damping. Higher density and biomass values lead to higher attenuation rates for both species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Coastal defence structures are proliferating as a result of rising sea levels and stormier seas. With the realisation that most coastal infrastructure cannot be lost or removed, research is required into ways that coastal defence structures can be built to meet engineering requirements, whilst also providing relevant ecosystem services—so-called ecological engineering. This approach requires an understanding of the types of assemblages and their functional roles that are desirable and feasible in these novel ecosystems. We review the major impacts coastal defence structures have on surrounding environments and recent experiments informing building coastal defences in a more ecologically sustainable manner. We summarise research carried out during the THESEUS project (2009–2014) which optimised the design of coastal defence structures with the aim to conserve or restore native species diversity. Native biodiversity could be manipulated on defence structures through various interventions: we created artificial rock pools, pits and crevices on breakwaters; we deployed a precast habitat enhancement unit in a coastal defence scheme; we tested the use of a mixture of stone sizes in gabion baskets; and we gardened native habitat-forming species, such as threatened canopy-forming algae on coastal defence structures. Finally, we outline guidelines and recommendations to provide multiple ecosystem services while maintaining engineering efficacy. This work demonstrated that simple enhancement methods can be cost-effective measures to manage local biodiversity. Care is required, however, in the wholesale implementation of these recommendations without full consideration of the desired effects and overall management goals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

While attention in coastal ecosystem restoration has increased over the last two decades, the success rate of efforts remains relatively low. To increase success rates, physical restoration techniques often utilize supporting or protective materials to provide a stable surface for transplantation, and in some cases reduce herbivory and hydrodynamic disturbances. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of traditional (staples, burlap) and novel (BESE- elements, a biodegradable potato starch lattice) physical restoration techniques on the growth of transplanted Halodule wrightii seagrass. A first experiment revealed that seagrass planted in both two-stacked BESE structure without planting holes and four-stacked BESE with holes had significantly higher shoot count and blade length than four-stacked BESE without holes, with the latter design losing all seagrass shortly after deployment as shoots could not float through the structure. In a second experiment, the BESE lattice treatment (four-stacked with holes) had three times the shoot count and equal to greater blade length compared to traditional methods of physical restoration (staples and burlap), likely due to BESE providing some protection from hydrodynamic activity. However, disturbances, possibly including herbivory and hydrodynamic activity (culminating with Hurricane Irma), prevented long term study, illustrating the importance of stochastic abiotic factors in seagrass planting success. Overall our study demonstrates the effectiveness of using BESE lattice designs and similar physical techniques in the restoration of seagrass beds. • Seagrass restoration is expensive and often unsuccessful. • Traditional and novel physical restoration techniques were compared. • Biodegradable starch (BESE) lattices yielded better growth. • BESE may improve restoration in hydrodynamically active environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sediment dynamics have an important influence on the morphological evolution of tidal wetlands, which consist of mudflats and salt marshes. To understand the nature of sediment behavior under combined current–wave action at an exposed tidal wetland, we measured the waves, currents, water depths, bed-level changes, and sediment properties at a mudflat–salt marsh transition on the Yangtze Delta, China, during five consecutive tides under onshore winds of ~8m/s, and calculated the bed shear stresses due to currents (τ c ), waves (τ w ), combined current–wave action (τ cw ), and the critical shear stress for erosion of the bottom sediment (τ ce ). The bed shear stresses under combined current–wave action (τ cw ) were approximately five times higher on the mudflat (up to 1.11N/m2; average 0.27N/m2) than on the salt marsh (up to 0.14N/m2; average, 0.06N/m2). On the mudflat, τ cw was larger than the critical erosion shear stress (τ ce =0.103N/m2) for 70% of the period of submergence, whereas τ cw was always lower than τ ce at the salt marsh site (τ ce =0.116N/m2). This result indicates that the sediment dynamics on the mudflat were dominated by erosion, whereas at the salt marsh they were governed by deposition, which is in agreement with the observed bed-level change during the study period (−3.3mm/tide on the mudflat and 3.0mm/tide on the salt marsh). A comparison of τ cw values calculated using the models for bed shear stresses under combined current–wave action indicates that both models are applicable to the present case and effectively predict the bottom shear stress under combined current–wave action. Overall, we conclude that τ cw in combination with τ ce is useful in assessing the hydrodynamic mechanisms that underlie the morphological evolution of exposed tidal wetlands. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: When macrophytes are growing in the river, the vegetation induces substantial changes to the water quality. Some effects are the result of direct interactions, such as photosynthetic activity or nutrient uptake, whereas others may be attributed to indirect effects of the water plants on hydrodynamics and river processes. This research focused on the direct effect of macrophytes on oxygen dynamics and nutrient cycling. Discharge, macrophyte biomass density, basic water quality, dissolved oxygen and nutrient concentrations were in situ monitored throughout the year in a lowland river (Nete catchment, Belgium). In addition, various processes were investigated in more detail in multiple ex situ experiments. The field and aquaria measurement results clearly demonstrated that aquatic plants can exert considerable impact on dissolved oxygen dynamics in a lowland river. When the river was dominated by macrophytes, dissolved oxygen concentrations varied from 5 to 10mgl−1. Considering nutrient retention, it was shown that the investigated in-stream macrophytes could take up dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) from the water column at rates of . And DIN fluxes towards the vegetation were found to vary from 0.03 to 0.19gNha−1 h−1 in spring and summer. Compared to the measured changes in DIN load over the river stretch, it means that about 3–13% of the DIN retention could be attributed to direct nitrogen uptake from the water by macrophytes. Yet, the role of macrophytes in rivers should not be underrated as aquatic vegetation also exerts considerable indirect effects that may have a greater impact than the direct fixation of nutrients into the plant biomass. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Benthic ecosystem engineering organisms attenuate hydrodynamic or biogeochemical stress to ameliorate living conditions. Bioturbating infauna, like the lugworm Arenicola marina, determine intertidal process dynamics by maintaining the sediment oxygenated and sandy. Maintaining the permeability of the surrounding sediment enables them to pump water through the interstitial spaces, greatly increasing the oxygen availability. In a field experiment, both lugworm presence and siltation regime were manipulated to investigate to what extent lugworms are able to cope with sedimentation of increasing mud percentage and how this would affect its ecosystem engineering. Fluorescent tracers were added to experimentally deposited mud to visualise bioturbation effects on fine sediment fractions. Lugworm densities were not affected by an increasing mud percentage in experimentally deposited sediment. Negative effects are expected to occur under deposition with significantly higher mud percentages. Surface chlorophyll a content was a function of experimental mud percentage, with no effect of lugworm bioturbation. Surface roughness and sediment permeability clearly increased by lugworm presence, whereas sediment erosion threshold was not significantly affected by lugworms. The general idea that A. marina removes fine sediment fractions from the bed could not be confirmed. Rather, the main ecosystem engineering effect of A. marina is hydraulic destabilisation of the sediment matrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Although several recent studies point at the importance of seagrass roots for nutrient acquisition in oligotrophic tropical ecosystems, remarkably little is known about the root architecture of tropical seagrasses. The present study provides a detailed description of the root architecture of six seagrass species that were extracted from three sites differing in sediment type and nutrient availability (i.e., except for one species that was not present at one of the sites). Number of roots per node, order of root branching, length and diameter per root order, root hair density and length were determined and used to calculate a topological index for the different species and habitats. Root architecture differed strongly between species. The relatively long-lived and slowly-growing species Thalassia hemprichii and Enhalus acoroides were characterised by short internodes with relatively few unbranched roots per node and a high root hair density. More fast growing species such as Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata and Syringodium isoetifolium had many roots per node, the majority of which were branched. Surprisingly, differences in sediment type and nutrient availability, as present between locations, had little effect on root architecture. We expect this to be due to a relatively homogeneous nutrient distribution at the small scale within water saturated sediments. Overall, all seagrass species had relatively simple branching (topological index > 0.7), comparable to angiosperms of the low temperate salt marsh. We speculate that relatively simple root architecture of plants in flooded systems reflects the need for a minimal path length for oxygen transport from shoots to roots. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Erosion of tidal flats is to a large degree determined by the erosion threshold of their cohesive sediments, i.e., the critical bottom shear stress identifying the onset of erosion. Given that the erodibility of tidal flats can vary strongly over both space and time, rapid in situ measuring methods for quantifying the critical bottom shear stress are needed. As the largest changes in tidal flat elevation are generally observed during storms when shear stress is wave dominated, we developed a mobile Oscillatory-Channel Resuspension flume, OsCaR, as a rapid method to measure the critical wave-generated shear stress on sediment cores directly taken from the field. We assessed the performance of the OsCaR-flume by conducting erodibility measurements on a range of artificial sand – mud mixtures, and along a natural longshore estuarine sediment type and benthic assemblage gradient. Measured erodibility of the artificial sediments matched well with sediment transport theory, indicating that the OsCaR-flume is able to reproduce wave-generated shear stress accurately. Moreover, the patterns observed in the influence of total benthic metabolic rate divided over functional groups on sediment erodibility show that the OsCaR-flume is able to capture the main benthic processes, as they corresponded well to previous laboratory based studies. • A new method for measuring natural sediment erodibility under waves is introduced. • Sediment resuspension rates can be used to quantify critical bed shear stress. • Benthic metabolic rate may explain erodibility patterns in a field context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: To examine the spatial and temporal variability of sediment grain size in exposed tidal wetlands with ample sediment supply, we sampled sediments and measured hydrodynamics, accretion/erosion rates, and vegetation characteristics in the Yangtze Delta. Sediment grain size exhibited a landward/upward decreasing trend. This trend is mainly attributed to attenuation of hydrodynamics. A 630-day series of daily surface sediment sampling at a fixed site on an unvegetated intertidal flat revealed significant seasonal and storm-cyclic changes in grain size. This temporal variability was related to alternating accretion/erosion events, with erosion associated with coarser grain size. Such temporal dynamics were not present in vegetation, where sediment remained fine grained throughout the year. In the marsh, vegetation cover enables the trapping of fine-grained sediments in the following ways: (a) adherence of suspended sediments onto plants; (b) deposition of suspended sediments stimulated by attenuation of hydrodynamics through plant obstruction; and (c) prevention of resuspension of fine-grained deposits due to the protection of the plant canopy. The influence of vegetation on sediment grain size was clearly seen when comparing sediment trapped by different vegetation types and seasonal patterns of trapped sediment on different vegetation canopy densities. The relatively high plant biomass of the recently introduced Spartina alterniflora enhanced the trapping effect, whereas plant degradation due to buffalo grazing reduced the trapping effect. We conclude that for exposed tidal wetlands with ample sediment supply such as the Yangtze Delta, the spatial and temporal variability of sediment grain size is governed predominantly by physical controls on the unvegetated flat and predominantly by biophysical interaction of hydrodynamics and vegetation in the salt marsh, rather than by sediment supply. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Transitional coastal zones are subject to high degrees of temporal fluctuation in environmental conditions, with these patterns varying in space. Gaining an in depth understanding of how sessile organisms cope with and respond to such environmental changes at multiple scales is needed to i) advance fundamental knowledge, ii) predict how organisms may react to stressors and iii) support the management of halieutic resources in transitional coastal areas. We addressed this question using mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) as model system. Valve-gaping sensor were deployed at multiple sites within the southern Venice Lagoon over a period of 6 months, to investigate the existence of periodicity in valve-gaping and its relationship with environmental variables, such as temperature and chlorophyll-a. Gaping behaviour was found to have periodic rhythms, of ~12 h and ~ 24 h, which were most pronounced in the inner part of lagoon part and were strongest during summer months. In autumn, the dual periodicity became weaker and mostly the 12 h remained. Gaping was closely linked with tide, but the relationship in terms of phasing varied upon location. Surprisingly, no clear direct relationships were found with chlorophyll-a, but food delivery may be mediated by tide itself. The results highlight the heterogeneity of behaviour and the endogenic nature of circadian rhythms in space and time. These findings have important implications for management of transitional areas where tidal alteration may have impacts on key behaviours, and emphasize the importance of characterizing their rhythms before using these as stress indicator. Moreover, the described tidal relationships should be included in growth models of bivalves in these systems. Unlabelled Image • It is necessary to understand how organisms respond to environmental changes. • Transitional coastal areas are great model systems. • Mussels behaviour was monitored long-term and in continuous in three sites. • It followed the tidal rhythm particularly in more internal site and in summer. • Responses to small scale changes are important for management and for predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shellfish aquaculture is considered a sustainable way to help meet rising protein demands worldwide. In shallow coastal dynamic ecosystems mussels can be cultivated directly on the seabed, however this method has a low return as mussels exposed to natural environments risk dislodgment, high predation rates, sedimentation and competition. The formation of spatial patterns in natural mussel beds, that result in 'organized patchiness', is thought to be an adaptive mechanism to reduce population losses. The driver and effects of this patterning need to be disentangled at multiple spatial scales in which patterns are observed. With a field experiment we aimed to understand how small-scale density (actual cover) and patterning (perimeter: area ratio of clumps and number of mussel layers) can be altered by manipulating large scale density (re-laying biomass), that farmers could control during seeding activity. Within this study we considered the interplay between environmental conditions (manipulating flow rate with the use of large mesh cages) and density for pattern development and persistence, and the repercussions of this on mussel productivity (growth and condition). We further investigated local scale processes, such as the role of within-clump biological activity (biodeposition), that may be a predictor for the larger scale observations of losses and persistence relative to density. We found that manipulating density by controlling seeding biomass from boats is not an accurate predictor of actual seabed density and resulting patterning. The growth and condition of the mussels was only influenced by local scale effects, resulting in high 'within clumps' variation. Aiming for an intermediate density to avoid both excessive fragmentation and excessive layering may be viewed as an optimal strategy to maximise returns, but we encourage the incorporation of the hierarchy of multiple scales of density in future studies of patterning that will allow the inclusion of these effects in a model of growth and productivity. • Separate environment and biomass effects on Mytilus on-bottom production. • Seeding biomass is not a predictor of actual seabed densities and patterning. • Mussels health parameters showed high 'within clumps' variation. • Mussel layering should be minimised in calm environments. • Mussel fragmentation should be minimised in highly dynamic habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shallow tropical bays in the Caribbean, like Orient Bay and Galion Bay in Saint Martin, are often sheltered by coral reefs. In the relatively calm environment behind the reefs, seagrass meadows grow. Together, these ecosystems provide valuable ecosystem services like coastal protection, biodiversity hotspots, nursery grounds for animals and enhancing tourism and fisheries. However, sea-level rise imperils these ecosystems and the services they provide because of changing hydrodynamic conditions, with potential effects on the interdependencies between these ecosystems. By means of a hydrodynamic model that accounts for the interaction with vegetation (Delft3D Flexible Mesh), the impact of sea-level rise (0.87 m in 2100) is investigated for three scenarios of future reef development (i.e. keep-up, give-up and catch-up). If coral reefs cannot keep up with sea-level rise, the wave height and flow velocity increase significantly within associated bays, with the wave height doubling locally in case of eroding reefs in our model simulations. Since the presence of seagrass strongly depends on the hydrodynamic conditions, the response of seagrass to the future hydrodynamic conditions is projected using a habitat suitability model that is based on a logistic regression. The spatial character of the bays determines the response of seagrass. In Orient Bay, which is deeper and partly exposed to higher waves, the seagrass will likely migrate from the deeper parts to shallow areas that become suitable for seagrass because of the surf zone moving landward. In contrast, the conditions for seagrass worsen in Galion Bay for the catch-up and give-up scenario; due to the shallowness of this bay, the seagrass cannot escape to more suitable areas, resulting in significant seagrass loss. It is shown that healthy coastal ecosystems are able to limit the change in hydrodynamic conditions due to sea-level rise. Therefore, preserving these ecosystems is key for ensuring the resilience of shallow tropical bays to sea-level rise and maintaining their ecosystem services. • Sea-level rise intensifies hydrodynamic conditions in shallow tropical bays. • Wave dissipation by coral reefs controls the impact of sea-level rise. • The spatial character of the bay determines the response of seagrass. • Tropical marine ecosystems can mitigate the impact of sea-level rise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]