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The growth of higher plants on buildings and stone monuments can cause various biodeterioration phenomena. Along with careful management of higher plants in archeological sites and monumental areas, a comprehensive method for assessing the risk they pose to stone conservation still needs to be developed. We propose, therefore, a multi-factorial index of risk from higher plants which will evaluate relevant threats to stone structures and local conditions of vulnerability (RHV). We suggest associating such threats with the environmental conditions (defined by bioclimate and environmental context) and with the plant growth characteristics (defined by life forms, root systems and stem development features, ecological preference, and physiological characteristics). We also suggest associating vulnerability with edaphic factors (stone typology and colonization microsites) and with conservation status, including management activities. The proposed index was tested at a number of international sites in a bioclimatic gradient varying from a temperate climate (Lucca, Italy) to Mediterranean (Rome, Italy) and sub-Mediterranean xeric (Pasargadae, Iran) and tropical (Angkor, Cambodia) conditions. The results show how useful such an index can be in performing analytical assessments of the risk posed by ruderal plants in cultural heritage sites. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild and semi-wild plants are factual resources for a local community when they satisfy its needs. According to the bio-cultural approach, these plants and associated knowledge help define the cultural identity of each community, and ethnobotanical plants constitute a particular facet of the cultural relationships between people and nature. By referring to the concept of Cultural Keystone Species (CKS), a group of species considered in the same way within a community represents a homogeneous bio-cultural trait. We tested the hypothesis that the CKS model and the related index, the Identified Cultural Importance (ICI) of species, could be useful tools to culturally define and describe groups of species as bio-cultural traits. As a dataset to test this hypothesis we considered the wild and semi-wild plants used for food and nutraceutical purposes in 13 Aga villages in Bali. Data were collected through an ethnobotanical study in 2014. A multivariate analysis method based on the Fuzzy Set Theory was used to perform quantitative analyses to find clusters of plants. The Graph Theory was instead applied in order to detect trajectories and similarity gradients in the system of groups of species. The results confirmed that groups of species can be considered as bio-cultural traits, spreading within a cultural area in different ways and conveying information about their relationship with the native culture. The ICI index and CKS concept helped us to interpret the bio-cultural traits in terms of their cultural salience, considering them as general descriptors of the bio-cultural system of a community according to bio-cultural diversity and Traditional Ecological Knowledge. In the case of the Bali Aga villages, the partition of species showed 11 groups, and several species resulted of relevant cultural importance. Among them, Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. can be considered a CKS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Biodeterioration study with an ecological approach. • Long scale diachronic analysis of biodeterioration for a long-term intervention strategy. • Mapping of biodeterioration patterns for an evidence-based model of preventive interventions. Multi-temporal investigation of biodeterioration patterns (BPs) in cultural heritage sites is crucial for the development of effective management plans. Here, microscopy and biomolecular methods were employed to analyze the BPs, which took place in the Crypt of the Original Sin (Italy) over a wide temporal scale, i.e., from 2001 to 2017. Before restoration interventions, performed in 2002–2003, a variety of BPs was observed, including green patinas (Chlorophyceae), brown-black patinas (Cyanobacteria), rosy discolorations (Actinobacteria) and some colonization by lichens, mosses and ferns. Restoration included biocide treatments as well as structural interventions causing environmental modifications of the site. To interpret the ecological relationships between environmental factors and temporal changes, we combined the analysis of ecological information on the various BPs with the results of a multivariate statistical analysis. Using BPs as bioindicators, humidity maps of the plasters were generated and water infiltration paths reconstructed. Several years after biocide application, a significant reduction of BPs was observed, together with limited colonization by dematiaceous and meristematic fungi. Our observations demonstrate the usefulness of combining structural and environmental interventions for an effective restoration strategy; these interventions reduced the moisture levels of the walls, consequently reducing biological colonization. Moreover, our findings suggest that monitoring BPs during time can be of guidance in the long-term maintenance of cultural heritage, and provide an evidence-based model for preventive interventions and biocide treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The present paper investigates the use of natural biocides on stone materials. • The dataset collects details on methods and results for each test of each paper. • The most promising substances are highlighted. • Deficiencies and further needs in the use of biocides are evaluated. The use of traditional biocides to reduce bio-deterioration phenomena of stone monuments is increasingly deterred, due to risks for human health and the environment, as well as for potential interference with materials. Extensive research is now ongoing, aiming to find alternative and eco-friendly substances or methods to halt or reduce bio-deterioration. Here we aim to provide an assessment of the results of scientific tests, in order to evaluate the most promising substances, likewise possible deficiencies and future directions in research. We performed an extensive literature review on natural biocides for controlling bio-deterioration of stone using peer-reviewed articles between 1986 and 2018. The dataset created displays information about the experimentation of a total of 61 natural substances, mostly essential oils (23), or substances of plant origin and other compounds. The methods of application of such biocides were diverse, but the in vitro tests were the prevailing ones. The most tested organisms were fungi, followed by cyanobacteria and algae. The efficacy of the substances resulted highly variable, as did protocols and experimental doses, resulting in a lack of a robust and coherent assessment of best practices. Also, we found a few papers discussing the interference of these substances with the substrate. We believe that this area of research is very promising and necessary, although additional tests with a standardised methodology are still needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Biocide products are applied to stone monuments against the biodeterioration. • The potential harm of biocides on stone needs to be monitored by interference test. • A new standard methodology useful to define the most suitable interference tests. • A dataset of scientific papers including the interference test of biocide products. Many biocidal products are applied to stone monuments as a conservative treatment against biodeterioration. However, checking national and international committees for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage and scientific literature, it stands out that most standards define single tests, but in the case of biocides, a well-defined standard methodology to check their interactions with the substrate is not drawn up yet. The present work thus provides comparative evaluations and suggestions to monitor the potential interference of biocides on stone materials. For this purpose, we built a dataset based on fifty scientific papers dealing with interference tests on biocides, and then we compared several methods and the obtained results, considering different biocides, stones and modes of application. The comparative data point out that the most investigated features are: changes in the surface colour, using colourimetry methods; water absorption, using capillary rise; contact sponge; contact angle; and morphology, using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Here, we also provide a guidance standard on these methodologies, considering both in situ and in-laboratory analysis. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different quantitative indices were proposed to determine the cultural importance of ethnobotanically valuable plants in order to develop a tool for the evaluation of immaterial cultural heritage. These indices were applied to an ethnobotanical survey of food and nutraceutical plants traditionally consumed in Bali, Indonesia. The uses of the plants were grouped into 6 use categories. The Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance (RI), cultural value (CVs), and informant consensus factor (ICF) were calculated for a list of plants cited by fifty informants in different traditional villages on the island. This evaluation of the cultural importance of plants through different indices produced interesting variations. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott came highest in the preference ranking for RFC, UV and CVs. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. was in first place for CFSI and RI. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet and Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T. Ness) Blume were also high in the CFSI, RI, and CVs. The ICF results revealed a well-defined food tradition. The combined use of these indices, as opposed to any single index, makes it possible to quantify the role that a given plant plays within a particular culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the research on the cultivated plants in home gardens in Bali, Indonesia. Explored is the tradition of producing fruit and vegetables in the area. Also evaluated are findings from ethnobotanical surveys, documenting the structure, species, diversity and usage of cultivated plants from home gardens.

Various biological communities colonize the Khmer temples in Angkor (Cambodia), which had lain abandoned for many centuries. These biodeterioration patterns change in response to different environmental conditions, and the aim of this study is to quantify their frequency and ecological characteristics according to a forest canopy gradient. The descriptive and multivariate statistical analysis applied to data collected from the four temples in the study identifies various biological communities along with a temple-specific ecological succession. The initial pioneer community is primarily composed of a reddish biofilm of the green alga Trentepohlia sp., and it occurs in xeric and shady environmental conditions, becoming dominant in forested areas. Cyanobacteria biofilm, consisting of species belonging to the genera Scytonema and Gloeocapsa , sometimes in combination with the lichen Endocarpon sp., prevails in xeric and sunny conditions. With the progressive increase of the availability of edaphic water, typical of forested areas, various lichen communities are able to establish themselves (dominated by Lepraria , Pyxine coralligera and Cryptothecia subnidulans respectively), followed by moss and higher plant communities. Understanding these relationships appears to be a very useful way of identifying the best microclimatic conditions for stone conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of a diffuse biodeterioration phenomena can be observed across large areas of the outer surface of the limestone walls of the Church of the Virgin in Martvili. A differential erosion phenomenon was detected, suggesting a possible association with biological colonization. The erosion phenomenon is characterized by a circular discoloration leading progressively to the detachment of flakes of limestone at its center. Since the aforementioned process has not been described in the literature until now, the present study was focused on the interpretation of its origin and evolution. Three sides of the Church are affected by a variety of occurrences of circular differential erosion which display different stages of the process, whereas the western side is affected by epilithic growths across its entire surface. Surveys of the petrographic, mineralogical and physical features of the stone were made, and parameters such as density and porosity were recorded. Samples were analyzed by optical microscopy and SEM analysis in order to detected the presence of microorganisms whose species were then identified by means of morphological and molecular examinations. The study of cross-sections stained using the PAS method has confirmed the causal connection between microorganisms and the deterioration phenomena, providing information about their spread of penetration into the substrate and their substantial potential for causing damage. Dryness appears to be the main ecological condition favoring endolithic rather than epilithic growth. The most common isolated microorganisms were cyanobacteria (Chroococcales) and, to a lesser extent, meristematic fungi. The characteristics of the stone, and especially some endogenous discontinuities related to the accumulation of sedimentary layers and to the action of stone carving tools, might explain why the same differential erosion phenomenon occurs in specific areas of the block stones. The development of the differential erosion phenomenon shows a variety of stages of biological colonization. The progressive evolution of the deterioration process has been observed in detail: (a) firstly, white circular discolorations appear on the stone, which darken over time eventually becoming almost black; (b) circular perforations appear around the perimeter; (c) and finally a flake detaches from the center, leaving a deep depression in the stone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terraces are traditional engineered ecosystems that affect the hydro-geological equilibrium, slope stability, and local communities. The aims of this paper are (i) identifying environmental factors that affect terrace stability in the Amalfi Coast, (ii) defining agriculturalists' observations on environmental changes within that system and (iii) exploring potentiality of these observations to better define conservation strategies. All available data on physical and ecological factors recognized to affect the terrace system were collected and analyzed. Interviews were conducted with agriculturalists to obtain long-term observations on environmental factors that interact with this system. Landslides are more frequent where rainfall is high and during winter. Fires have an uneven annual distribution, with higher frequency during summers. Agriculturalists detailed complex interactions among environmental factors, economic elements, and terraces. These observations represent a valuable resource for defining causes and effects of abandonment and for better addressing conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inventory of microorganisms responsible for biological deterioration of ancient paintings has become an integral part of restoration activities. Here, the microbial agent of rosy discoloration on medieval frescoes in the Crypt of the Original Sin (Matera, Italy) was investigated by a combination of microscopic, molecular and spectroscopic approaches. The bacterial community from three rosy-discoloured painting sites was characterized by 16S rRNA gene-based techniques. The eubacterial population was prevalently composed of Actinobacteria, among which Rubrobacter radiotolerans-related bacteria accounted for 63–87% of the 16S rRNA gene pool per sampled site. Archaea, with prevalence of Haloarchaea-related species, were detected in one of the three sites where they accounted for < 0.1% of the total 16S rRNA gene pool. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the identity between R. radiotolerans carotenoids (bacterioruberins) and pigments responsible for colour alteration of frescoes. This investigation provides the first evidence of a causal relationship between heavy contamination by Rubrobacter-related bacterioruberin-producing bacteria and rosy discoloration of ancient wall paintings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The frescoes of Livia’s villa at Prima Porta, Rome, are the most famous representations of Roman gardens. The painted flora is analyzed from the scientific viewpoint and previous identifications are critically discussed. Here, 24 different species are described, giving information on the taxonomic, and phytogeographic position. Most of them belong to the spontaneous elements present in the Mediterranean forests, maquis and grasses of Southern Italy, such as Arbutus unedo, Laurus nobilis, Nerium oleander, Quercus ilex, Quercus robur gr., Cornus mas, Myrtus communis, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Viola reichenbachiana, Chrysanthemum coronarium, Anthemis cotula, or widely cultivated, such as Cupressus sempervirens, Cydonia oblonga, Pinus pinea, Punica granatum, Papaver somniferum, Rosa centifolia, Phoenix dactylifera. A symbolistic purpose of the pictures is also clearly evident. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Plant colonization in the archaeological areas, despite its relevant role for monument conservation, has not dedicated noticeable concern. For the first time in Iran, we carried out a floristic evaluation in an archaeological area and its biodeterioration hazard, choosing Pasargadae WHS. Among the 142 detected species, found in the 9 study areas of the site, 48 ruderal common species resulted widely distributed, with a dominance of grasses (mainly Therophytes and Hemicryptophytes) belonging to the Asteraceae and Poaceae families. The analysis of plant colonization identified 10 possible Micro-Sites of growth (MS = place of growth on stone observed at small scale), half of which are described for the first time. Besides the life forms of plants, plant colonization in specific MS was selected as a parameter for hazard evaluation. Then, we coupled this information with five determinant parameters for plant growths, having each one three classes of value to obtain the final evaluation. The colonization in joints and fractures of stone blocks, as well as the surface covered by soil, represent the highest hazard conditions for biodeterioration. Green-gray sandy limestone, which was used as a platform for palaces, had the highest colonization. The collected data will contribute to the site management. [Display omitted] • The first floristic study on harmful flora in the archaeological sites of Iran. • An evaluation of characteristics of harmful flora in arid bioclimate conditions. • A methodological contribution to the indirect risk assessment of higher plant colonization. • A proposal of microsite classification as a parameter for analyzing biodeterioration phenomena. • An assessment of hazard risk from plant colonization of Pasargadae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potentially biodeteriogenic, subaerial green alga Trentepohlia umbrina is widely distributed on shaded substrates with northern aspects. This preference for low light was confirmed by a recent survey in Lazio, Italy. However, the same survey revealed an isolated occurrence of extensive growths of T. umbrina-dominated biofilms on surfaces with diverse aspects that ranged from highly exposed to shaded. Prior studies of Trentepohlia photosynthesis have been restricted to single sites, so this multi-aspect site was particularly interesting to understand the photoacclimation potential of Trentepohlia. Photosynthetic pigment concentrations and chlorophyll fluorescence (in situ and ex situ) were used to assess the photosynthetic response to changes in light exposure and humidity. Pigment contents and photoinhibition decreased, while the maximum photosynthetic rate and the level of light that saturated photosynthesis increased with an increasing light exposure duration (ranging from c. 5 to 300 min d–1 of exposure to sunlight). Laboratory tests of relative humidity (RH) on biofilm photosynthesis showed no recorded activity up to 32% RH, only 26% of the maximum activity at 77% RH, and full activity at 92% RH. When T. umbrina was in the desiccated state a lowering of basal of chlorophyll a fluorescence emission and a loss of variable fluorescence occurred. This suppression of fluorescence when cells are desiccated is known to result in photoprotection of reaction centres from continuing high irradiances, as the enhanced thermal dissipation replaces slower and potentially damaging energy transfer to the functional reaction centres. It was concluded that T. umbrina has a much wider environmental range than previously thought, but its growth is very slow and may be overlooked during cultural heritage surveillance, leading to inconspicuous chronic degradation of outdoor stone substrata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pink patinas and rosy discolorations on stones and mural paintings are often of biological origin, although they are frequently ascribed to chemical causes. This work represents the first report of this kind of biodeterioration in Pompeii, where we found a pink dusty patina in the “ Terme del Foro ”. Non-invasive sampling was performed to identify the aetiology of the discoloration. Interestingly, the pink pigmented bacterial species Arthrobacter agilis was found associated to the patina, pointing to a role of this bacterial species in rosy discoloration. Both morphology of the isolate and 16S rDNA analysis were consistent with identification as A. agilis. Raman spectroscopy was carried out to compare the pigments from the pink patina with those associated with A. agilis isolates, and the reference strain A. agilis DSM 20550. A spectroscopically identical carotenoid-like pigment was identified in all the three types of sample, arguing for a biological origin of the patina. Observations of pink patina distribution suggest that low-lighting and salinity are likely to play a role in patina development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Reconstruction experiments of biodeterioration on materials are crucial in testing biocides. • Interference of biocides with materials and pigments cannot be neglected. • Stone porosity strongly affects the biocidal efficiency. • Eco-friendly emulsifiers can act as tertiary bioreceptivity agents. Hypogeal environments due to their limited air circulation, low constant temperatures and high humidity could be threatened by microbial spreading. In cultural heritage preservation, natural bioactive molecules have been proposed as a possible alternative to traditional biocides. Although several papers report the in vitro effect of green biocides, scant information is available about their efficacy in direct application and interaction with historical materials. Then, we investigated five green biocidal formulations never applied before to control the biodeterioration of subterranean mural painting raising from Italian and South Korean traditions. We tested three emulsified essential oil-based (oregano and clove bud) water suspensions, and usnic acid-based water and 2-propanol/dimethyl sulfoxide (7:3) solutions for establishing: (i) possible interference with the reconstructed ancient wall paintings materials (colour and water adsorption changes), (ii) efficacy on recurrent biodeteriogens, trough optical/electronic microscopy, bioluminometric and culture-based methods. Results evidenced the different impact of such biocides on wall paintings' materials and pigments (e.g., higher on red and black Etruscan tiles). They also highlight the importance of reconstruction experiments for customizing treatments, avoiding interference with historical materials (e.g., changes in colour) and biodeteriogens' spreading. The active principles concentration and stone porosity strongly affect the biocidal efficacy, but the solvent and emulsifier used also had a relevant role. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The delineation of bioclimatic areas is a key tool in informing sustainable land management strategies, especially in the light of climate change. It requires an in-depth analysis of climate data but also of the physical and biological factors that affect the distribution of natural vegetation. The present study applies an exploratory data analysis aimed at defining bioclimatic conditions in an area characterized by steep slopes and prone to soil erosion (Amalfi Coast, southern Italy). To this end, we analyzed long-term (1959–1999) monthly rainfall and temperature data measured at 28 gauging stations within the study area using a geographic information system and multivariate statistical tools. Then, we analyzed how the spatial distribution of rainfall and temperature data relates to topography, vegetation cover, and soil erosion. We also derived bioclimatic indicators from the geostatistical analysis. We then identify and comment on drawbacks found in the procedure used in the present study, discussing possible solutions to overcome such problems. We finally discuss the potential contribution of this study to the development of sustainable land management policies for socio-ecological systems with complex topography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood species identification and characterization of its weathering processes are crucial steps in the scientific approach of conservation of wooden cultural heritage. Many precious wooden objects of ancient Egypt are largely present in museums, nevertheless relatively little information is available concerning the nature of timber used and on their status of conservation. To address this gap, the wooden species of three relevant archaeological wood objects (statue, box, and coffin) arising from different Egyptian archaeological sites dated from the Old Kingdom (2,686–2,181 BC) to New Kingdom (1,550–1,069 BC) were deeply studied. Five hardwood and softwood species were identified belonging to Tamarix mannifera, T. gennessarensis, Ficus sycomorus, Vachellia nilotica, and Cedrus sp. Such data confirmed the recurrence of Vachellia and Tamarix among the most common timbers found in ancient Egypt. Scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform spectroscopy, and synchrotron x‐ray radiation diffraction were conducted to evaluate the archaeological wood deterioration. The formation of microcracks, biological degradation patterns (fungal colonization), or chemical characterization (accumulation of salts on and in‐between wooden cells) were detected. SEM micrographs showed the presence of fungal hyphae and conidial spores on the wooden cells. Significant changes in the chemical wood composition and decrease in the crystallinity index were detected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Neem ( Azadirachta indica ; Meliaceae ) is widely known for its cold pressed seed oil, mainly used as insecticide, but also for cosmetic, medicinal and agricultural uses. The seed oil is widely employed in the Indian subcontinent, and the leaves seem to have a lower relevance, but the ethnobotanical information of Bali (Indonesia) considers the utilisation of leaves for medicinal properties. Aim of the study We report ethnopharmacological information about current uses of neem, in particular of the leaves, besides the insecticidal one, we discuss on the historical background of their uses. Materials and methods Ethnobotanical data were collected using both literature and scientific references and semi-structured interviews with 50 informants (ages ranged between 14 and 76 years old) through the snowball method in thirteen aga (indigenous Balinese) villages, following Ethic code procedures. The informants were asked to specify: which part of the plant was used, and how that plant part was used. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium voucher. In consideration of the high variability and complex chemical constituent of neem, a HPTLC analysis of neem leaves coming from both the Indonesian island of Bali and the Indian subcontinent was carried out. Results The data on the medical use of traditional preparations from leaves of neem display a wide spectrum of applications. In the Indian subcontinent, neem leaves are used to treat dental and gastrointestinal disorders, malaria fevers, skin diseases, and as insects repellent, while the Balinese used neem leaves as a diuretic and for diabetes, headache, heartburn, and stimulating the appetite. Differences in utilisation cannot be related to chemical differences and other constituents besides limonoids must be investigated and related to the multipurpose activity of neem. Conclusion This study revealed that neem leaves are believed to treat diabetes in both Balinese and Indian communities. Limonoids can not be considered the only responsible of digestive properties. Further research would be the validation of this report by enzymatic tests and the identification of active constituents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional knowledge of local plant uses is rapidly fading away, especially in rural Mediterranean areas. We carried out ethnobotanical research in 2010-2011 in order to investigate the local knowledge of wild plants in the Tolfa- Cerite-Manziate area of Italy (Latium, district of Rome). We carried out a total of 45 semi-structured interviews with farmers, herders, and fishers. Here, a simple diachronic comparison is made between the current study and a previous one conducted in some of the villages of the study area to highlight potential losses of traditional knowledge of local plants. We documented a total of 102 plant species, belonging to 48 families, along with their uses (excluding food uses). We also reported some non-plant based remedies that were primarily used in veterinary medicine. Some plant uses, especially for making handicrafts, have not been reported previously (e.g., those of Celtis australis L. Cannabaceae, Betula pendula Roth Betulaceae). Many plant uses are no longer remembered in the area, which indicates a loss of local ethnobotanical knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Orchids have fascinated humans since ancient times. Not only the particular morphology of their flowers and hypogean organs, but also their reproductive biology have inspired myths, legends and popular traditions in many cultures, all around the world. Despite these facts, their representations on ancient artefacts have never been described in the scientific literature. No clear data exist for Eastern culture, and in Western countries, the first certain representations of orchids in art date back to the XV-XVI century CE. This paper documents different identifications of orchids on Roman monuments changing the common belief that these plants first appeared in art more recently. Floral elements of Cephalanthera spp., Spiranthes spiralis (L.) Chevall, of Orchis tridentata Scop., and of other orchids were observed in different architectonical elements (cornices and ceilings) throughout the Roman period, and in the external frieze of the Ara Pacis monument (I century CE). These representations seem to refer to a symbolism of fertility and sexuality, and their absence in medieval time can be explained only considering religion influences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean, especially in Italy, have been poorly investigated. There is a long history of fishing in this region, and it remains an important economic activity in many localities. Our research entails both a comprehensive review of the relevant literature and 58 field interviews with practitioners on plants used in fishing activities along the Western Mediterranean Italian coastal regions. The aims were to record traditional knowledge on plants used in fishery in these regions and to define selection criteria for plant species used in artisanal fisheries, considering ecology and intrinsic properties of plants, and to discuss the pattern of diffusion of shared uses in these areas. Methods: Information was gathered both from a general review of ethnobotanical literature and from original data. A total of 58 semi-structured interviews were carried out in Liguria, Latium, Campania and Sicily (Italy). Information on plant uses related to fisheries were collected and analyzed through a chi-square residual analysis and the correspondence analysis in relation to habitat, life form and chorology. Results: A total of 60 plants were discussed as being utilized in the fisheries of the Western Italian Mediterranean coastal regions, with 141 different uses mentioned. Of these 141 different uses, 32 are shared among different localities. A multivariate statistical analysis was performed on the entire dataset, resulting in details about specific selection criteria for the different usage categories (plants have different uses that can be classified into 11 main categories). In some uses, species are selected for their features (e.g., woody), or habitat (e.g., riverine), etc. The majority of uses were found to be obsolete (42%) and interviews show that traditional fishery knowledge is in decline. There are several reasons for this, such as climatic change, costs, reduction of fish stocks, etc. Conclusions: Our research correlates functional characteristics of the plants used in artisanal fishery and habitats, and discusses the distribution of these uses. This research is the first comprehensive outline of plant role in artisanal fisheries and traditional fishery knowledge in the Mediterranean, specifically in Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The flora of the archaeological area of Maxentius’s villa (Rome) was tested as bioindicator of buried remains of masonry and pavements. A total of 53 floristic surveys provided the occurrence of each species in sample units, as well as some their phenological features. The data were elaborated through multivariate statistical analysis in order to assess floristic affinities/differences among sample units, and define their ecological characteristics. The fuzzy set methodology was applied to evaluate relation between floristic richness, plant cover and soil depth. Results showed that the buried remains of stonework create a discontinuity in the ground, influencing the flora growing above it. This phenomenon may give rise to differential presence of some species (e.g., Cota tinctoria, Trifolium scabrum ssp. scabrum on thin soil; Ranunculus bulbosus, Trifolium pratense on deeper soil), but will not have such a great effect on floristic richness. The bioindication of this phenomenon also occurs through phenological irregularities in single specimens and changes in plant cover. Nevertheless other environmental factors (soil moisture/aridity, trampling, enrichment of nitrogen, cutting, ground depression) can interfere with the use of plants as bioindicators of buried structures. It is therefore necessary to consider other factors ecological influencing each site when you want to use plants as bioindicators in archaeological prospection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background:Research was carried out in the years 2002-2003 into food, flavouring and feed folk traditions of plants in the Tyrrhenian part of the Basilicata region (southern Italy). This area was colonized in ancient times by Greeks. Data was collected through field interviews, especially of farmers. Methods:Field data were collected through structured interviews. The informants, numbered 49, belonged to families which had strong links with the traditional activities of the area. Results:61 taxa are cited, belonging to 26 botanical families, amongst which 44 used as food or flavouring and 22 for animal alimentation. Besides 7 taxa are involved in rituals especially connected with agriculture and plant growth. Conclusion:The preservation of some rituals especially concerning agricultural plants is noteworthy in the area, together with a certain degree of continuity in food uses. Knowledge and rediscovery of recipes in human and animal diet could represent an economic potential for the area [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Field ethnobotanical survey was undertaken for the period of 2002–2003 in the Tyrrhenian part of the Basilicata region of southern Italy. Data of 56 species of plants belonging to 29 families where gathered through interviews; among the species, 47 are used in human therapy, 6 as insect repellents, 15 in veterinary medicine, 1 for its ichthyotoxic properties and 3 for magic therapeutic purposes. The most important findings in ethnomedicine relate to Nasturtium officinale (renal colic, liver diseases), Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (mouth ulcers), Leopoldia comosa (toothache, headache), Micromeria graeca subsp. graeca (coughs) and Ceterach officinarum (malaria), while in the ethnoveterinary field, we have Pteridium aquilinum (wolf bites) and Spartium junceum (fractures of animal limbs). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Research was carried out into agricultural and domestic-handicraft uses in folk traditions in the Tyrrhenian sector of the Basilicata region (southern Italy), as it is typically representative of ethnobotanical applications in the Mediterranean area. From the point of view of furnishing a botanical support for the study of local "material culture" data was collected through field interviews of 49 informants, most of whom were farmers. Results: The taxa cited are 60, belonging to 32 botanical families, of which 18 are employed for agricultural uses and 51 for domestic-handicraft folk uses. Data show a diffuse use of plants for many purposes, both in agricultural (present uses 14%; past uses 1%) and for domestic-handicraft use (present uses 40%; past uses 45%); most of the latter are now in decline. Conclusion: 60 data look uncommon or typical of the places studied. Some domestic-handicraft folk uses are typical of southern Italy (e.g. the use of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus for making ties, ropes, torches, baskets or that of Acer neapolitanum for several uses). Other uses (e.g. that of Inula viscosa and Calamintha nepeta for peculiar brooms, and of Origanum heracleoticum for dyeing wool red) are previously unpublished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subterranean Cultural Heritage sites are frequently subject to biological colonization due to the high levels of humidity, even in conditions of low irradiance and oligotrophy. Here microorganisms form complex communities that may be dangerous through mineral precipitation, through the softening of materials or causing frequent surface discolorations. A reduction of contamination's sources along with the control of microclimatic conditions and biocide treatments (overall performed with benzalkonium chloride) are necessary to reduce microbial growths. Dark discolorations have been recorded in the painted Etruscan tombs of Tarquinia, two of which have been analyzed to collect taxonomical, physiological, and ecological information. Eighteen dark-pigmented fungi were isolated among a wider culturable fraction: nine from blackening areas and nine from door sealings, a possible route of contamination. Isolates belonged to three major groups: Chaetothyriales , Capnodiales (Family Cladosporiaceae), and Acremonium -like fungi. Exophiala angulospora and Cyphellophora olivacea , a novelty for hypogea, were identified, while others need further investigations as possible new taxa. The metabolic skills of the detected species showed their potential dangerousness for the materials. Their tolerance to benzalkonium chloride-based products suggested a certain favouring effect through the decreasing competitiveness of less resistant species. The type of covering of the dromos may influence the risk of outer contamination. Fungal occurrence can be favoured by root penetration. • Tolerance to biocides affects fungal spreading. • Metabolic screenings show fungal dangerousness for materials. • Subterranean environments show unknown fungal taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the poorly known phenomenon of Centimetric circular areas Uncolonized by Microbial Biofilms (CUMBs) which is frequently observed on natural and heritage stone surfaces displaying widespread lithobiontic colonization. In order to unveil a possible relationship with past lichen colonization, analyses were carried out on the distribution, morphometry, physical and mineralogical properties, and microscopic features of CUMBs on the marble surfaces of a balustrade in the Garden of a Savoy residence in Torino (Italy; UNESCO-WHS 823bis) and in its original quarry site in the W-Alps. Image analyses of CUMBs displayed a distributional and dimensional compatibility with lichen thalli (re-)colonizing surfaces in their vicinity. Invasive analyses on quarry materials displayed similar microscopic modifications in marble layers beneath CUMBs and lichens, associated to a higher stabilization of the calcite {01–12} form, which is favoured by the presence of organic substances. These findings support the hypothesis of a lichen origin for some CUMBs, which may derive from the modification of physical stone properties and/or a long-lasting allelopathic effect affecting surface bioreceptivity. [Display omitted] • CUMBs and lichens compared on natural and heritage marble surfaces. • Distributional and dimensional compatibility of CUMBs and lichens. • Similar micro-features beneath CUMBs and lichens associated to calcite reprecipitation. • Experimental evidences pointing to a lichen origin of (some) CUMBs. • Reduced CUMBs bioreceptivity due to modified physical properties and/or allelopathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetation management of archaeological sites is a recurrent problem when considering the conservation of historic structures and biodiversity. In the UNESCO site of the Etruscan necropolis "La Banditaccia" (Cerveteri, Italy), several plants grow on the ancient tumuli, which are subjected to different management practices. In order to assess the influence of interventions on plant colonisation, a comparative analysis of several tumuli was performed, through structural, chorological, phytosociological and statistical evaluations. This investigation identified and defined an ecological gradient among the tumuli. The cover values of Therophytes and Hemicryptophytes decreased by half with regular cutting, while those of Geophytes and Phanerophytes increased. Mesophilic field plants (MFP), both ephemeral and perennial, represented the most abundant group. Mediterranean bushes and forests (MBF) showed a positive trend from the entrance to the last tumuli of the necropolis. This trend was clearly defined by PCA, and it seems community changes were caused by the absence of mowing activities and to a lower tourist frequentation. SIMPER analysis highlighted which species on each tumulus mainly influence their dissimilarity. This knowledge, when combined with the evaluation of the potential risk of the different plant communities growing on the tumuli, can help to identify the best management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest and demand for nutraceuticals are rapidly increasing in many industrialized countries due to the emergence of health risks associated with the increased consumption of processed foods. Several wild Mediterranean plants used as traditional foods are an extraordinary source of nutraceutical substances with antioxidant properties. This study has two main aims: (1) to quantify the antioxidant properties of traditional wild food plants and (2) to determine if their use in soups (i.e., the cooking process) can alter their beneficial properties. We have evaluated the antioxidant capacity (ABTS, DPPH) and the Total Phenolic Content (Folin-Ciocalteu) of five herbaceous plants traditionally consumed in several areas of Central Italy: (A) Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth, (B) Hypochaeris radicata L., (C) Cichorium intybus L., (D) Tordylium apulum L., and (E) Helminthotheca echioides (L.) Holub. Our analyses show good levels of antioxidant capacity for all plants, with Reichardia picroides and Helminthotheca echioides having the highest levels. There is a high correlation between the antioxidant activity and the Total Phenolic Content especially in Reichardia picroides (R2=0.92) and Hypochaeris radicata (R2=0.93). Boiling the species caused a general decrease in the antioxidant activity and polyphenols. Our study confirms the health benefits of consuming wild plants, especially raw ones in salads. It also supports the use of ethnobotanical information to study and then promote the consumption of wild food plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Localised pink patinas were detected in the house of Bicentenary (Herculaneum, Italy). • Seven different strains were isolated as pure cultures from the pink patinas. • The isolated strains are found associated, for the first time, to the rosy discoloration. • All the isolates are carotenoid-producing bacteria. Abstract The archaeological site of Herculaneum (Campania, Italy), which was buried as a result of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in the first Century C.E., was first excavated in the XVIII century. It has been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1997, and in 2001 the Herculaneum Conservation Project (HCP) was started, which has carried out, among other activities, studies and conservation interventions across the site. Up until this time, little data has been available on the growth of biological agents that could cause biodeterioration of wall paintings and archaeological structures. Particularly, the presence of rosy discoloration is frequent on ancient monuments of the Vesuvian area, even if such phenomenon has so far been largely neglected. In this study, we describe, for the first time, the pink patina distribution and the microbial species isolated from the House of the Bicentenary in Herculaneum. By combining culture-based approaches with molecular and phylogenetic analyses we reliably isolated the pink-producing bacterial species and attributed them primarily to Arthrobacter agilis , and secondarily to Rhodococcus corynebacterioides , and Methylobacterium extorquens. Strains closely related to Dietzia maris and Gordonia rubripertincta were also isolated. With the exception of M. extorquens , a proteobacterium, all of the other isolates belong to the phylum Actinobacteria. All isolates produced carotenoid pigments, suggesting that they can participate in the development of such peculiar coloration. Our data indicate the presence of a large number of pink-pigmented bacterial species in the community, even if the presence of bacteria in viable but not-culturable state, such as Rubrobacter radiotolerans , is not excludible. The culture-based approach had the advantage of (i) obtaining bacterial isolates, (ii) showing their differential ability to produce pink discolorations, and (iii) testing conditions for in vitro growth. Moreover, field observations showed an association of pink patinas with dry conditions, saline efflorescence and moderate solar radiation. Some seasonal variations were also detected, with an increase in late spring and summer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In restoration and conservation practices, biocide treatments are considered one of the most practical approaches to remove biological colonization on artworks, including stone. Numerous studies have focused on the short- and long-term effects of these treatments and recently many alternative methods to reduce their potential hazards to human health and the environment have been proposed. In this study, a solvent gel containing dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), already used to clean paintings, was applied on colonized marble artifacts at the monumental cemetery of Bonaria (Cagliari – Italy) to remove biological patinas. The protocol efficiency was evaluated by scanning electronic microscopy, rugosimetric and colorimetric measurements and growth tests. A comparative study also was performed to validate the method using biocides currently used in conservation. The results demonstrate that DMSO solvent gel is efficient at removing patinas on stone, of low impact, easy to use, inexpensive and can be considered a more practical alternative to biocide treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Üzümlü Church is an unusual soft tuff formation located in central Turkey (Cappadocia) dated around the 7th century. The rocks on its external surfaces show a severe erosion with an evident surface detachment. Moreover, the widely distributed black-grey crusts mainly consisting of lichens point out the need of evaluating their deteriorative effects. This research was focused on lichen deterioration by indicating the biodeterioration processes and on selecting the most appropriate preservation treatments suitable for stone conservation. The interaction of lichens with stone was studied by evaluating through microscopic analyses, the spread and the depth of fungal hyphae penetration, and by applying the LPBA Index. The SEM analysis of all fragments shows a dramatic loss of the stone matrix and a dense network of fungal hyphae within the rock. Nevertheless, both the high penetration of fungal hyphae, and the consequent difficulty in their removal without a strong peeling effect, both the relevant loss of the stone matrix and finally the evident reduction of water penetration when crusts are present in the surfaces, advise against their removal. Further chemical treatments of consolidation should be carefully evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defining and understanding the long-term social and ecological evolution of rural cultural landscapes can provide insights into complex dynamics of landscape and environment changes. Land cover changes (LCCs) in Mediterranean-type ecosystems are mainly due to human-induced landscape transformations. Multi-scale spatial analysis can provide useful information in the interpretation of LCCs data and contribute to identifying underlying drivers of landscape change. In the present study, we analyze eight diachronic land cover maps and perform statistical data assessments of human pressure in the Tolfa–Cerite district (Northern Latium, central Italy) to investigate potential changes in the cultural landscape. The Tolfa–Cerite district is a generally dry area with subhumid–humid sites and an interesting mosaic of Mediterranean-temperate vegetation, agricultural and pastoral land, and a millenarian human presence. LCCs were assessed over a period of 57 years (1949–2006) using maps at both low-resolution (1:100.000) and high-resolution (1:25.000) with different class nomenclature systems. Three primary land cover changes have been observed during the investigated period: (i) urbanization, (ii) land abandonment, and (iii) deforestation. While the former two classes of landscape change are particularly common in the northern Mediterranean region, forest conversion to pastures and shrub lands due to intensive grazing, fires, climate aridity, and increasing human pressure is, nowadays, rarely observed in Italy. Better understanding the influence of population dynamics at the local scale and other drivers of LCCs can help fine-tuning conservation policies looking at landscape quality, diversity, and fragmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Loloh are herbal drinks produced and consumed exclusively in Bali (Indonesia) to prevent and treat different ailments. This is the first study to document plants species used as Loloh , reporting the phytochemical components and pharmacological properties of the most cited plants. Documenting the plants used in herbal drinks in Bali by local communities to treat various ailments (providing some information on phytochemistry and pharmacology of the most interesting plants). Materials and methods Ethnobotanical data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (individual and group discussions) and questionnaires. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium vouchers. Results A total of 51 plants species (belonging to 32 families) have been documented for their use in the various preparation of Loloh . Different plants and plant parts are used to prepare Loloh to treat heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and other minor health problems. These plants are mainly prepared as decoctions, are juiced or simply added to the preparation. The most cited plants (>30 informants) are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Cinnamomum burmanni Nees ex Bl., and Piper betle L. These plants are well studied with multiple demonstrated pharmacological activities (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic). Conclusion The Balinese communities still preserve a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. Several species are well known for their pharmacological properties, but some [such as Pneumatopteris callosa (Blume) Nakai and Dendrocnide stimulans (L. f.) Chew] are understudied and could be promising candidates for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Loloh are herbal drinks produced and consumed exclusively in Bali (Indonesia) to prevent and treat different ailments. This is the first study to document plants species used as Loloh , reporting the phytochemical components and pharmacological properties of the most cited plants. Documenting the plants used in herbal drinks in Bali by local communities to treat various ailments (providing some information on phytochemistry and pharmacology of the most interesting plants). Materials and methods Ethnobotanical data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (individual and group discussions) and questionnaires. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium vouchers. Results A total of 51 plants species (belonging to 32 families) have been documented for their use in the various preparation of Loloh . Different plants and plant parts are used to prepare Loloh to treat heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and other minor health problems. These plants are mainly prepared as decoctions, are juiced or simply added to the preparation. The most cited plants (>30 informants) are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Cinnamomum burmanni Nees ex Bl., and Piper betle L. These plants are well studied with multiple demonstrated pharmacological activities (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic). Conclusion The Balinese communities still preserve a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. Several species are well known for their pharmacological properties, but some [such as Pneumatopteris callosa (Blume) Nakai and Dendrocnide stimulans (L. f.) Chew] are understudied and could be promising candidates for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]