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On July 1, 1523, Hendrik Vos and Johann van den Esschen, two friars from nearby Antwerp, were burned at the stake on the Grand Plaza in Brussels for holding "heretical Lutheran" beliefs. Their deaths were the first executions of the Reformation. Like Martin Luther, the men were members of the Congregation of German Reformed Augustinians, a small reform group within the broader Augustinian Order. The deaths moved Luther to compose his first song, a ballad entitled A New Song Here Shall Be Begun. This article explores the Congregation's history in the Low Countries, the background to the executions, and Luther's connections to this episode. It argues that when understood in this broader context, Luther did not see these deaths as merely the predictable outcome of the Reformation clash of ideas, or simply as an opportunity for anti-Church propaganda (as some have argued), but as confirmation that God Himself was at work in the early Reformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Flacian controversy over the definition of original sin (1560s-70s), a doctrinal debate took place that proved to be foundational for Lutheran theology: a number of the laity from the central German territory of Mansfeld wrote confessions in which they articulated their views on the matter. The mere existence of these statements from the likes of counts, city officials, artisans, and laborers raises the question of lay participation in the doctrinal controversies of the latter sixteenth century, a question rarely asked by historians. Moreover, an examination of why these people wrote their confessions reveals a desire to engage in questions of doctrine during this period of the late Reformation, while an analysis of their writings demonstrates a surprisingly complex understanding of the controversy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the decades following Luther's death, adherents of the Wittenberg Reformation fought amongst themselves over how to define the reformer's theology. Often such struggles pitted Philippists against Gnesio-Lutherans, but sometimes the controversies took place within these groups themselves. The following article examines the Flacian controversy over original sin as it split the Gnesio-Lutheran pastorate of the central German county of Mansfeld. Rather than focusing on the content of the debate, this study analyzes the two distinct approaches to the laity taken by the pastors on each side of the divide. One side endeavored to present the doctrinal complexities of the disagreement to the parishioners; the other attempted to shield the laity from the intricacies of the dispute. It was, therefore, not only a theological disagreement that divided the pastors, but two distinct and competing visions of ecclesiology and the role of the laity in the church. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]