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A twofold sensitivity characterizes Christianity. One is sensitivity to its inner core and the other is sensitivity to its surrounding culture in which it lives and communicates its message. The inner core is the person of Jesus Christ whom his followers experienced as utterly human and completely divine. This is the heart of Christian spirituality. It found its creedal expression in terms of one person having two natures. Although the different creedal statements responded to various Christological controversies and remained faithful to its inner core, neither understanding nor communicating one person having two natures has been easy. Matters came to a head with the anthropocentric turn of the modern period. Friedrich Schleiermacher showed his sensitivity to the changed culture, only to be castigated by Karl Barth for not being sensitive to the inner core. This article argues that studies in nature-mysticism found in the contemporary world enable us to understand the ancient metaphysical terminology of one-person two-natures and also maintain the twofold sensitivity. I do this by using the category of "person-mysticism." "Person-mysticism" is about encountering God in another human person, understood as an extension of "nature-mysticism" that involves encountering the divine in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friedrich Schleiermacher emerged as a prominent advocate for German nationalism in the Wars of Liberation from Napoleonic domination in the early nineteenth century. Alongside his work as a pastor and theologian in Berlin, and also as the co-founder of the University of Berlin, Schleiermacher developed German nationalism from a distinctly Protestant perspective, one that sought the preservation of Protestantism in the German lands under Napoleonic domination. While it would be an overstatement to suggest that Schleiermacher's nationalism was anti-Catholic, he certainly sought to preserve and maintain Protestantism in the German lands. His vision of the German nation-state emphasized Germany's role as a divine instrument of God's will in the world. He assumed the cultural unity of the peoples in German lands, that is, an area of land in which the peoples are bound together by the common use of the German language. In his distinct role as a pastor, theologian, and academic, he was devoted to the cultivation of German national consciousness and the establishment of a German nation-state. Schleiermacher's work would help to provide a cultural foundation for the emergence of the German nation-state more than half a century before the establishment of the German empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schleiermacher's theological champions like Kevin Hector contend that his Christology is 'high' and is Chalcedonian in spirit. I offer a number of objections to this view, suggesting that Schleiermacher offers a distinctive, early modern account of Christ as a uniquely deified redeemer but not of Christ as the uncreated God. This raises some surprising questions for the dogmatic relation of Christology, soteriology and anthropology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the encounters of two great Christian theologians of modern era, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Karl Barth, with aridity of their contemporary theological thoughts are comparatively surveyed. The comparison of these two shows relations between their relatively adverse views. They tried to enter enthusiasm in theology, but concerning the problems of their contemporary theologies based this enthusiasm on different bases. Schleiermacher emphasized on feeling, intuition and piety and Barth on something otherworldly a complete different from human experience. In this way, most of their views especially on Bible and doctrine of Christ are different. In spite of these differences, Barth argued depending on a Spirit-based or Christ-based interpretation of Schleiermacher’s theology we can hope on making a bridge between Barth and his views. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) is a key representative of nineteenth-century German theology. As such, he is emphatic that dogmatics has to be presented in systematic form. This article will analyse in detail the meaning and significance of this demand in Ritschl's work. It will be shown that the systematic shape of theology was for Ritschl a wedge issue that permitted him to subject some individuals and traditions to a sharp critique while aligning himself with others. Among those singled out for criticism are Philipp Melanchthon and Friedrich Schleiermacher. Yet Schleiermacher, ironically, also emerges as perhaps the most important influence on Ritschl's concept of the theological system. The article will conclude with reflections on advantages and disadvantages of developing theology as a system in the tradition Ritschl represented and shaped. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What is pedagogy, exactly? Merriam‐Webster defines it simply as "the art, science, or profession of teaching." In contemporary academic discourse, however, pedagogy is generally left undefined — with its apparent implicit meanings ranging anywhere from a specific "model for teaching" (e.g., behaviorist or progressivist instruction) to a broadly political philosophy of education in general (most famously, a "pedagogy of the oppressed"). In this paper, Norm Friesen and Hanno Su follow the Continental pedagogical tradition in giving pedagogy a general but explicit definition. They do so by looking at how pedagogy arises both in everyday life and in school as unavoidably ethical activity undertaken primarily for the sake of the young person or child. Such activities, the authors maintain, are structured not so much by processes, methods, and outcomes, but by irresolvable oppositions and the tensions between them. They illustrate this inductively through a series of images and examples — moving gradually from ones involving parenting and early childhood to ones from elementary and secondary schooling. In this way, Friesen and Su show that pedagogy is not so much one or more ideologically focused or evidence‐based instructional or psychological approaches to be mastered by a professional or teaching specialist. It is instead an independent but ethically informed practical perspective — one that can (and has) been extended to form a distinctively pedagogical theory and discipline. As such, it is something that is not only a part of our everyday life and culture, but arguably of all human cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By the end of the 18th century, the university model of Europe was largely that of the late Middle Ages (the 15th century), although the French Revolution and its overflow into Napoleon's reign had a significant effect on the universities of Europe. In 1789, Europe had 143 universities, but in 1815 only 83 universities remained; thus, a loss of 60 universities occurred during this time. However, in the 19th century, a turnaround took place. By the 1850s, Europe had 98 universities, and just before the start of World War II, there were approximately 200 universities. Viewed against the university's rich history from the Middle Ages, the 19th century was characterised by a time of great upheaval in universities. The German university model contributed significantly to the reversal of university growth in the 19th century. The new societal structures brought about by the French Revolution with its Enlightenment ideologies required new university models. The first model that was developed was the French university model. The French university model was a highly regulated model. The state prescribed to universities exactly which university should teach what content, as well as which function each university should fulfil. The university was in the service of the state and had to assist the state in training citizens for the performance of their task. The French university model had four aims in the sense that this model intended to: secure and maintain postrevolutionary status, bring education in line with state policy, prevent a new professional class from emerging and, lastly, establish restrictions on free thought in order to prevent the development of any ideas contrary to the stronghold of the state. This study shows that the notable reversal of the 19th-century university system came about as a result of the implementation of the German university's model. Core German intellectuals such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Wilhelm von Humboldt devised a new German education system, independent from that of French oppression. These intellectuals developed numerous fruitful concepts such as Bildung, Wissenschaft, Lehrfreiheit, and Lernfreiheit. These concepts and other concepts made it possible for the new German university model to be devised and implemented. The German university model did not only have a great influence on the growth of student numbers, but it also opened up some lines of thought regarding the idea of the university, which are still relevant today. Some of the core issues still featuring on the agendas of present discussions regarding universities include the state-university relationship, where public universities are considered by some to be the property of the state. Issues regarding lecturers include, among others, the task of lecturers. The Medieval university concept of the lecturer as a master teacher is rarely found within the contemporary university - instead, teaching students is regarded as a lower order task compared to that of the lecturer's responsibility towards research. Today, lecturers' performance is measured by their research output (within the publish or perish culture) rather than their ability to teach students. An additional issue concerns the idea that higher education is currently perceived to be a human right and that students are therefore entitled to a free education (part of the Fees Must Fall campaign). Finally, the fragmentation of the curriculum within the modern university, resulting in the loss of the ideal of a universal education, is of concern - the latter having been a characteristic that was part of the idea of the university. This paper, by revisiting the classical German university model, provides a philosophical and historical background to current discussions regarding aspects such as the university-state relationship, the role of professors, demands on students and the fragmentation of the curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rosenzweig's principal interlocutors are commonly taken to be idealist and existentialist philosophers. Rosenzweig's disparaging remarks at the beginning of Part Two of The Star of Redemption regarding modern theology and its progenitor, Friedrich Schleiermacher, strengthen the view that the Star is best understood in a philosophical context. However, a close reading of the Star alongside Schleiermacher's main doctrinal work, The Christian Faith, reveals surprising points of similarity on a wide range of topics. Furthermore, the points of contradiction between the two works can illuminate Rosenzweig's contributions to modern theology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synodal principle and "priesthood of all believers" go hand in hand: Both are based on the individual relationship between Christ and individual Christians. However, it took time until the Lutheran church had fully established synodality. Dating back to the Reformation the synodal principle could only evolve due to theologians re-emphasizing its value (Schleiermacher). Moreover, territorial authorities had to step back from ruling the church (after 1918) and the church as such had to be re-built (after NS-regime). This suggests that synodality is not a fast-selling item, but needs nourishment and support [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The burden of this essay is to show that Friedrich Schleiermacher's theology of the atonement and account of Christ's soteriological work as priest is marked by recognisably Reformed commitments and logics that both build from and critique John Calvin and later Reformed scholastics. The essay contends that it is when Schleiermacher departs strongly from orthodox conclusions regarding substitutionary atonement that he mostly clearly appeals to key aspects of Reformed theology. Put differently, when Schleiermacher critiques the material content of Reformed orthodoxy, he does so by drawing on other doctrinal claims that are fundamental in Reformed thought: the divine decree, union with Christ, the import of sanctification and the interconnection between dogmatic expression and Christian piety. Schleiermacher presents creative solutions to theological conundrums, particularly those that plague Calvin and the later Reformed tradition about the relationship between God's eternal decree of grace and the appeasement of divine wrath on the cross. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Friedrich Schleiermacher, religiosity is rooted in feeling (Gefühl). As a result of our engagement with the world, on which we depend and which we can influence, we have both a sense of dependence and of freedom. Schleiermacher speculated that a sense of absolute dependence in reflective beings with self‐consciousness (human beings) gave rise to religion. Using insights from contemporary philosophy of biology and cognitive science, I seek to naturalize Schleiermacher's ideas. I moreover show that this naturalization is in line with Schleiermacher's outlook on biology, as he already had evolutionary considerations in mind when he wrote the Christian Faith (1830). While Schleiermacher rejects natural theology in a narrow sense (proofs for the existence of God), his project is natural theological in a broader sense, as it roots religion in experiences that we can examine using naturalistic theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay demonstrates the prominence of imitation in Kierkegaard's ethics. I move beyond his idea of authentic existence modeled on Christ and explore the secular dimension of Kierkegaard's insights about human nature and imitation. I start with presenting imitation as key to understanding the ethical dimension of the relationship between the universal and individual aspects of the human self in Kierkegaard. I then show that Kierkegaard's moral concepts of "primitivity" and "comparison" are a response to his sociological and psychological observations about imitation from an ethical point of view. In the final section of this paper, I briefly engage Friedrich Schleiermacher's "ethics of individuality" and Gabriel Tarde's "laws of imitation" to explore Kierkegaard's consideration of ethics and imitation as situated within the context of a broader conversation on imitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human Science Pedagogy is 'a strange case,' as Jürgen Oelkers has recently noted: In the Anglophone world, where Gert Biesta has compellingly encouraged scholars to 'reconsider education as a Geisteswissenschaft' (a human science) its main themes and the contributions of its central figures remain unknown. For Germans, particularly in more 'general' or philosophical areas of educational scholarship (i.e. Allgemeine Pädagogik), this same pedagogy is recognized only insofar as it is critiqued and rejected. Taking this strange situation as its frame, this paper introduces Human Science Pedagogy to English-language readers, providing a cursory overview of its history and principal contributors, while suggesting the contemporary relevance of its themes and questions in both English- and German-language scholarship. This paper concludes with an appeal to readers on both sides of the Atlantic to new or renewed consideration of this pedagogy as a significant and influential source for educational thinking deserving further scholarly attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friedrich Schleiermacher's (1768–1834) theological essay on the doctrine of election – in which he claims to stand squarely within the Reformed tradition – was an attempt to aid church unification in the 19th century Prussian church of which he was a member and a minister. In this essay Schleiermacher resists a narrow focus on individual election and particularly on how election was worked out in the direction of double predestination. The gift of God's electing grace is worked out historically and is therefore Christological and communal. He argues that God's will is neither twofold nor divisible – into two parts, concerning the elect and the reprobate – but one, indivisible, unconditional decree governed by the logic of electing grace. This article explores Schleiermacher's doctrine of election as part of a 250th commemoration of Schleiermacher's birth, and suggests how Schleiermacher's essay on election may contribute to theological interpretations and portrayals of the doctrine of election today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article forms part of the commemoration of Friedrich Schleiermacher, who died 185 years ago on 12 February 1834. It focuses on the aspects of Schleiermacher's life and work that have influenced the author the most. The article consists of personal annotations, Schleiermacher's understanding of 'divine' hermeneutics, his notion of congeniality and his 'subscription' to creedal Christianity while promoting the freedom of the exegete to interpret the Bible and ecclesiastical confessions robustly and critically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friendship is not often associated with citizenship, politics or civil society – and yet this contribution proposes that civic friendship(s) may be worth consideration as an expression of peacemaking and peacebuilding: the dynamic interplay between our 'social' and 'individual' selves working towards peace and countering violence. This theological consideration of friendship deals with the interaction between individuality and sociability in the work and thought of a theologian who was deeply interested in such interplay and which may therefore be helpful in theological reflection on friendship. This contribution draws on two theologians who were involved in higher education themselves – the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, who served as rector of the Humboldt University of Berlin (1815–1816), and the South African theologian Russel Botman, who served as rector of Stellenbosch University (2007–2014) – from whom we may learn about (civic) friendship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ludwig von Mühlenfels as Advocatus Schleiermacheri. An addendum. The editorial copy of the "Allgemeine Zeitung" has survived in the Cotta-Archive with the names of the contributors. This has made it possible to identify belatedly the author of the apologia "Another word about Schleiermacher" in the "Außerordentliche Beilage der Allgemeinen Zeitung" (Augsburg) of April 2, 1834. It was Ludwig Friedrich von Mühlenfels (1793–1861). Mühlenfels, who led a rather varied life, was related to Schleiermacher's wife Henriette, and thus belonged to Schleiermacher's extended family. (1) Member of Lützow's Freicorps. On Schleiermacher's suggestion, Mühlenfels participated in the war of liberation against Napoleon as a volunteer with the "Black Hunters", in the end in the so-called Battle of the Nations at Leipzig. He finished the study of law in 1816 and, on probation, joined the prosecutor's office in Cologne where the French legal code was still in force. (2) Incarcerated as a demagogue under the investigating judge E. T. A. Hoffmann. Mühlenfels became one of the formative figures in the early history of German fraternities and participated in the Wartburg Festival in October 1817. He was arrested in July 1819 by the authorities in Berlin, charged with activities as a demagogue and incarcerated in Berlin on September 17. Mühlenfels contested the jurisdiction of the authorities in Berlin and refused to testify. The investigative judge was the writer and composer E. T. A. Hoffmann who wanted to have Mühlenfels released, and who later used him as a literary figure in a satirical novel. (3) Flight from Berlin – Exile in Sweden. On May 5, 1821, Mühlenfels succeeded in fleeing to Sweden where he made a meagerly living as a private tutor. (4) Professor for German and Scandinavian Literature in London – Return to Prussia. In October 1827, Mühlenfels reached London. Supported by some German scholars, he obtained the Chair for German and Scandinavian at the newly founded University College. He taught there until 1831 and publishedseveral textbooks. When he was acquitted by a court ruling in 1830, he returned to the Prussian public service in August 1831 and gradually built a solid career. (5) The defender of Schleiermacher. His apologia of Schleiermacher written in opposition to the obituary by Gutzkow is a masterpiece of literary and legal writing. – First publication: Six letters between Mühlenfels, Henriette and Friedrich Schleiermacher, and Georg Andreas Reimer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During his lifetime, Friedrich Schleiermacher went on many journeys, not only within Germany but also abroad. His last journey took him, in the last year of his life (1833), to Scandinavia, where he during many weeks travelled through parts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark. His stay in Copenhagen at the end of the journey is sufficiently documented by scholars but there exists, as far as I know, no corresponding account of the many weeks on Swedish and Norwegian soil. The aim of the present paper is therefore to examine this longest part of the journey: Which way did Schleiermacher travel, which towns and places did he visit, whom did he have contact with and what else did he experience on his way? And – finally: what was the motivation of this 64 years old scholar for embarking on such a strenuous undertaking which a journey of many weeks – on land and at sea – certainly must have been in this period of our history? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After Friedrich Schleiermacher's death on February 12, 1834, his disciples and his family endeavoured to idealize him as an exemplary figure of the church by publishing a complete edition of his published and unpublished works as well as a selection from his letters. (1) Schleiermacher's Christian death („christliche Euthanasie“). This endeveaour began with the sermons delivered at the funeral and the notes of his wife, Henriette Schleiermacher, about his pious death. (2) Gutzkow's obituary in the „Allgemeine Zeitung“. The journalist Gutzkow in particular protested against this portrayal in an obituary in which the old Schleiermacher was declared to have been senile and without substantial importance for the present time. On the other hand, an image of the young Schleiermacher, the friend of the Romantics, was to be preserved for the younger generation. (3) The replies of Schleiermacher's disciples. A forthright reply to Gutzkow's obituary appeared in the same journal. His view was contradicted by means of an extensive biographical sketch by Friedrich Lücke, one of Schleiermacher's disciples. (4) Gutzkow's publication of „Schleiermacher's Vertraute Briefe über Friedrich Schlegels Lucinde“. Gutzkow supported his view with a new edition of Schleiermacher's early work, to which he added a provocative preface. As a result, the edition was banned. (5) Abuse of Schleiermacher or a gallant service to him? The reception of the „Vertraute Briefe“. The reactions were divided between considering the work as an early youthful indiscretion of Schleiermacher, and the idea of an intellectual identity running through Schleiermacher's whole life. The other authors of Young German aligned themselves with Gutzkow. (6) The end of the myth of Schleiermacher: Gutzkow's „Wally. Die Zweiflerin“. This novel, which derives the protagonist's suicide from his religious doubts, caused the literary movement Young Germany to be banned in all of Germany, and also led to the imprisonment of the author. In the novel itself, Schleiermacher's role is rather minor. Later on, Gutzkow did not renew the image of an non-clerical Schleiermacher. -- I shall also re-edit a conventional obituary, Gutzkow's obituary as well as an anonymous reply in the Allgemeine Zeitung (Augsburg). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I suggest that it is beneficial for Christian feminist theologians to affirm divine personhood on the basis of the revelation of God in the person of Jesus Christ. Doing so allows feminist theologians to connect the doctrines of God and Christ within systematic theologies. Moreover, by affirming divine personhood in concert with an extension of Friedrich Schleiermacher’s transcendental reasoning about redemption, feminists could contribute to the disruption of sexist ecclesial belief and practice. I examine Schleiermacher’s account and rejection of Nazareanism, Manicheanism, Pelagianism, and Docetism, inferring from them four marks of personhood as conditions for the possibility of redemption. These include the communicability of difference, material activity, differentiated relationality, and discerning attention with circumscribed ineffability. In this way, I link feminist anthropologies with Christologically regulated soteriological claims vis-à-vis the doctrine of God. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this article is to explore how presentations of the historical Jesus contributed to constructions of masculinities in the transformations of politics and power that took place in Europe in the nineteenth century.2 Parallel to the political transformations initiated by the American and French revolutions, there were also cultural processes that took away symbolic power from monarchy and religion, and invested it in citizenship and nations. The study investigates how presentations of Jesus by Friedrich Schleiermacher, David Friedrich Strauss and George Adam Smith were part of a common cultural and political discourse on nationalism and masculinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a work ahead of its time the German mathematician Hermann Grassmann (1809-1877) published in 1844 one of the landmark works in mathematics, his Ausdehnungslehre or Calculus of Extension. It contained the main theorems that make up what is today called linear algebra. The significance of the book was not recognized at first and it took even longer before any connection was publicly made between this work and Grassmann's training for the ministry. This was in spite of the strong influence on his thinking in general that he described coming from his teacher at Berlin, the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay evolved out of my effort to situate my work from the last quarter-century for an introduction to a collection of previously published essays. After tracing divergent uses of the terms pastoral and practical theology in figures such as Seward Hiltner, Friedrich Schleiermacher, and Don Browning, I turn to the task of differentiating the two disciplines. Although pursuit of dynamic theology lies at the heart of both, I argue that their sloppy conflation is problematic. Whereas practical theology is integrative, pastoral theology is person-and pathos-centered. I situate my work in pastoral theology within practical theology because of the latter's commitment to wider curricular and ministerial concerns. But I remain a pastoral theologian at heart, appreciative of its appropriation of psychology as a key means to comprehend what matters most to persons. Commitment to a theology of experience has led the discipline to the inadvertent creation of alternative theological loci of angst and flourishing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To engage the question of democratic futures, this essay considers Christian liberation theologies. It pursues an interpretative, constructive, and political agenda. Interpretatively, it identifies parallels between the methods and claims of liberation theologians and two classical theologians: Friedrich Schleiermacher and Karl Barth. Constructively, it suggests ways in which liberationist thought might improve theology in its Schleiermacherian and Barthian modes. Politically, it proposes that liberation theology--a mode of reflection both continuous with and constructively critical of classical theological outlooks--be viewed as a vanguard discourse that could dynamize the project of radical democracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]