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Objective: Entringer et al. used longitudinal data from a German panel study to examine reciprocal causal effects between personality and religiosity, along with cultural moderators of these effects. The current paper examines the robustness of the original effects to alternative model specifications. Method: We reanalyzed the same four‐wave data spanning 12 years (total N = 46,316), first replicating the original cross‐lagged panel analyses and then extending these analyses in three ways: Using a random‐intercept cross‐lagged panel model, using observed rather than latent variables, and modeling each trait individually rather than simultaneously. Results: Correlations between personality and religiosity were all small in size, even when aggregating over 12 years. Lagged effects were very small, and none was robust across all model specifications. Cultural moderators also depended on model specifications. Conclusions: The very small size of these reciprocal effects, along with their sensitivity to model specifications, suggest that conclusions about causal effects of personality and religiosity should be drawn very cautiously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

\n The cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) is an analytic technique used to examine the reciprocal causal effects of two or more variables assessed on two or more occasions. Although widely used, the CLPM has been criticized for relying on implausible assumptions, the violation of which can often lead to biased estimates of causal effects. Recently, a triangulation method has been proposed to identify spurious effects in simple CLPM analyses (e.g., Sorjonen, Melin, & Melin, 2024). We use simulations and a discussion of the formulas underlying regression coefficients to show that this method does not provide a valid indicator of spuriousness. This method identifies true causal effects as spurious in realistic situations and should not be used to diagnose whether a causal effect estimated from the CLPM is spurious or not. There are clear reasons to doubt causal estimates from the CLPM, but the results of the triangulation method do not add information about whether such estimates are spurious.Researchers use quantitative methods to answer questions about whether one variable has a causal effect on another. These methods rely on specific assumptions that may not hold, and when they do not, false evidence for causal effects can be found. Thus, an important part of quantitative research is developing new methods that can help researchers evaluate the performance of existing quantitative techniques. This paper examines one recently proposed method for evaluating results from a widely used model for analyzing longitudinal data: the cross-lagged panel model. We show that this newly proposed method for evaluating results of the cross-lagged panel model does not work as intended and should not be used to evaluate existing research results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research examining the associations between major life events and personality trait development is mixed. Work that evaluates perceptions of life events and how those perceptions are themselves associated with personality traits may help clarify the existing literature. We used a large student sample (N = 1,509) and a demographically diverse sample from a Qualtrics panel (N = 552) to conduct exploratory analyses examining the associations between the big five personality traits and perceptions of life events. Results suggested that (a) associations between personality and beliefs about event-related personality change differ between students and more representative samples, (b) associations between personality and event perceptions are often nuanced, and (c) event perceptions are not merely proxies for personality traits. These studies highlight the importance of subjective event perceptions in the study of major life events and personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses the primary goals of this journal's editorial team. They include improving transparency and openness of the research published, further diversify the journal, and to attract and publish solid scientific studies that make new contributions to the understanding of personality processes and individual differences.

How do life events affect life satisfaction? Previous studies focused on a single event or separate analyses of several events. However, life events are often grouped non-randomly over the lifespan, occur in close succession, and are causally linked, raising the question of how to best analyze them jointly. Here, we used representative German data (SOEP; N = 40,121 individuals; n = 41,402 event occurrences) to contrast three fixed-effects model specifications: First, individual event models in which other events were ignored, which are thus prone to undercontrol bias; second, combined event models which controlled for all events, including subsequent ones, which may induce overcontrol bias; and third, our favored combined models that only controlled for preceding events. In this preferred model, the events of new partner, cohabitation, marriage, and childbirth had positive effects on life satisfaction, while separation, unemployment, and death of partner or child had negative effects. Model specification made little difference for employment- and bereavement-related events. However, for events related to romantic relationships and childbearing, small but consistent differences arose between models. Thus, when estimating effects of new partners, separation, cohabitation, marriage, and childbirth, care should be taken to include appropriate controls (and omit inappropriate ones) to minimize bias. Plain language summary: How do different life events (e.g., marriage and childbirth) affect life satisfaction? To answer this question, past studies focused on a single event or separate analyses of several events. In reality, however, life events are often grouped together as they happen over the lifespan, occur in close succession, and are linked through common causes. The current paper aims to analyze life events jointly using representative German data (SOEP; N = 40,121 individuals; n = 41,402 event occurrences). We compare three different models: First, models with each life event by itself (other events are ignored but might still bias results through undercontrol bias). Second, combined models which controlled for all other life events regardless of when they occurred (these may also introduce bias, namely, overcontrol bias). Third, the model we favored which only controlled for any preceding (but not succeeding) life events. In this preferred model, the events of new partner, cohabitation, marriage, and childbirth had positive effects on life satisfaction, while separation, unemployment, and death of partner or child had negative effects. The choice of model made little difference for employment- and bereavement-related events. However, for events related to romantic relationships and childbearing, small but consistent differences arose between models. Thus, when estimating effects of new partners, separation, cohabitation, marriage, and childbirth on life satisfaction, care should be taken to include appropriate controls (and omit inappropriate ones) to minimize bias that potentially occurs due to other life events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The day reconstruction method (DRM) is an approach to measuring well-being that is designed to approximate the rich data that can be obtained from intensive repeated measures designs like those used in the experience sampling method (ESM). Although some preliminary tests of the validity of the DRM have been conducted, these typically focus on agreement between the 2 methods at very broad levels, rather than focusing on whether the 2 methods provide similar information about the exact same moments. This article reports 2 studies that use ESM and DRM to assess the same moments. Agreement between the 2 measures varied considerably depending on the focus of the analysis. For aggregate assessments of total time spent in situations and average affect in situations, agreement was high; for between-person differences in time use and experienced affect, agreement varied across situations; and for within-person differences in both situations and affect, agreement was quite low. In addition, we found preliminary evidence that the DRM may be more influenced by expectations regarding the pleasantness of situations as compared with ESM. These results suggest that for many common purposes, the DRM does not provide the same information as ESM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the journal is presented in which the editors discuss preregistered studies of personality development and aging using existing data.

Experienced well-being measures tap a distinct form of subjective well-being (SWB) and have different age-related properties than the more widely studied evaluations of life satisfaction. Unlike evaluations of the quality of life as a whole, experiential measures capture affective reactions soon after they occur. Recent advances in measurement have allowed for the inclusion of such experiential measures even in large-scale studies. However, respondent burden remains a concern; hence, surveys have also employed shorter experiential modules. The psychometric properties of these brief measures are not well understood. We examine the psychometric characteristics, including the factor structure and correlations with theoretically relevant criteria, of experienced wellbeing measures included in two supplements to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). The first supplement included a detailed time diary whereas the second included a brief review of the prior day. Results show that for the detailed time diaries a single index of affective experience provides a useful summary of the associations among individual affect items, both within and between participants. For the abbreviated method, two or more subscales better describe the underlying structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We examined actor, partner, and similarity effects of personality on well-being. • Actor C, A, E, and N were the most robust predictors of individual well-being. • Partner C and N were the most robust predictors of individual well-being. • Results are discussed in the context of experiential well-being and similarity. Abstract The current study examined actor, partner, and similarity effects of personality on a variety of well-being indices, including both global and experiential measures of well-being, in 2578 heterosexual couples (N = 5156 individuals; M age = 51.04, SD = 13.68) who completed the 2016 Wellbeing and Daily Life supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). Among actor effects, those for conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and neuroticism were the most robust predictors of well-being. Among partner effects, conscientiousness and neuroticism were the most robust predictors of well-being. Consistent with past research, similarity effects on well-being were generally small and not always significant. The results are discussed in the context of experiential conceptualizations of well-being and operationalizing similarity in relationship research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although personality psychologists often focus on between-person differences, understanding intraindividual variability is also a critical focus of the subdiscipline. Despite the fact that non-self-report techniques exist for assessing variability, questionnaire-based measures are still the norm. In two studies ( N = 149 and N = 202) we examine the possibility that intraindividual variability measures derived from repeated self-report assessments are affected by certain response styles. These studies, which use a variety of techniques for assessing within-person variability, show that standard measures are moderately to strongly correlated with theoretically unrelated variability measures, including those based on ratings of satisfaction with neutral objects or the personality of cartoon characters. These results raise questions about the validity and utility of widely used measures for assessing intraindividual variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large body of previous research suggests that people's global evaluations of their well-being tend to increase as a function of age. Fewer studies, however, have examined the extent to which people's in vivo experiences of well-being (e.g., felt emotions) vary as a function of age-and the existing findings are mixed. The present study used an approximately nationally representative sample of more than 2,500 Germans to evaluate developmental patterns in both experiential and global well-being using cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. The cross-sectional and longitudinal findings converged on the idea that affect-whether positive or negative, global or experiential-decreases as a function of age and time. In contrast, life satisfaction appears to remain consistent, or perhaps decline across midlife before rebounding in old age. These findings suggest that affective well-being may develop in a nuanced way across adulthood: Negative affect appears to ebb with age-but so does positive affect. (PsycINFO Database Record [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has explored possible origins of individual differences in subjective well-being, focusing largely on stable, internal characteristics of traits as predictors of life satisfaction (Diener & Lucas, 1999). Although past work has demonstrated that life satisfaction is largely stable over the life span, other evidence has also demonstrated the lasting impact of life events. In this study, we use married couples as a test of the impact of life circumstances on life satisfaction, focusing on similarity in life satisfaction before and after divorce. If life satisfaction is impacted by shared life circumstances, married couples (who share life circumstances) should show greater similarity in life satisfaction before divorce than after. We tested this possibility using a dyadic latent-state-trait model that examined cross-spouse similarity in the stable and changing components of life satisfaction. Using a nationally representative panel study from Germany (Wagner, Frick & Schupp, 2007), we showed that similarity declined substantially following divorce. This suggests that life satisfaction is related to shared life circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that having rich neighbors is associated with reduced levels of subjective well-being, an effect that is likely due to social comparison. The current study examined the role of income inequality as a moderator of this relative income effect. Multilevel analyses were conducted on a sample of more than 1.7 million people from 2,425 counties in the United States. Results showed that higher income inequality was associated with stronger relative income effects. In other words, people were more strongly influenced by the income of their neighbors when income inequality was high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research shows that the correlation between income and life satisfaction is small to medium in size. We hypothesized that income may mean different things to people at different ages and, therefore, that the association between income and life satisfaction may vary at different points in the life course. We tested this hypothesis in 3 nationally representative panel studies. Multilevel modeling techniques were used to test whether age moderated both the within- and between-person associations. Consistent with past research, we found that individuals who earned more on average and individuals who earned more over time reported higher levels of life satisfaction. Importantly, these effects were strongest for midlife individuals (those in their 30s-50s) as compared with individuals who were younger or older. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea that strong social relationships can buffer the negative effects of stress on well-being has received much attention in existing literature. However, previous studies have used less than ideal research designs to test this hypothesis, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the buffering effects of social support. In this study, we examined the buffering hypothesis in the context of reaction and adaptation to widowhood in three large longitudinal datasets. We tested whether social relationships moderated reaction and adaptation to widowhood in samples of people who experienced loss of a spouse from three longitudinal datasets of nationally representative samples from Germany ( N = 1,195), Great Britain ( N = 562), and Australia ( N = 298). We found no evidence that social relationships established before widowhood buffered either reaction or adaptation to the death of one's spouse. Similarly, social relationships that were in place during the first year of widowhood did not help widows and widowers recover from this difficult event. Social relationships acquired prior to widowhood, or those available in early stages of widowhood, do not appear to explain individual differences in adaptation to loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Global and experiential measures of well-being are remarkably stable over one month. • There was little difference in the psychometric properties of global and experiential well-being measures. • Our study reaffirms the validity of global measures of well-being. Within the past several decades, scholars have expressed concerns regarding the psychometric properties of global, retrospective self-reports of well-being (e.g., life satisfaction scales). This has led to the development of purportedly psychometrically superior experiential measures of well-being, such as the day reconstruction method. However, relatively few studies have directly compared the psychometric properties of global and experiential well-being measures. The present study was a one-month longitudinal design in which we collected up to three measures of (1) global well-being and (2) experiential well-being as measured via the day reconstruction method. These data were used to examine the temporal stability in both types of measures. Moreover, we also examined the criterion-related validity of global and experiential well-being by examining their correlations with theoretically-relevant variables. Results indicated that the majority of variance in all well-being variables was stable across one month—with global life satisfaction being the most stable and experiential negative affect being the least stable. Moreover, in our study, the criterion-related validities for global and experiential well-being were similar. These results seem to affirm the reliability and validity of global measures, and suggest that global and experiential measures of well-being may have similar psychometric properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weather conditions have been shown to affect a broad range of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The current study examines whether these effects extend to life satisfaction judgments. We examine the association between daily weather conditions and life satisfaction in a representative sample of over 1 million Americans from all 50 states who were assessed (in a cross-sectional design) over a 5-year period. Most daily weather conditions were unrelated to life satisfaction judgments, and those effects that were significant reflect very small effects that were only detectable because of the extremely high power of these analyses. These results show that weather does not reliably affect judgments of life satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study explored how life satisfaction changes before and after childbirth among first-time parents from a nationally representative, longitudinal study of Germans. Life satisfaction increased before pregnancy to a peak just after birth and then returned to the baseline level within 2 years postpartum. The 2 members of the same couple reacted and adapted to childbirth in similar ways, suggesting that something about the event itself (rather than the individuals' personality) affects individual differences in these responses. However, some personality characteristics (including neuroticism and openness) did moderate reaction and adaptation effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Longitudinal data from a nationally representative sample of Australians were used to evaluate mean- level differences and rank-order stability in personality traits assessed twice over a 4-year time span (n = 13,134). Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness declined over the life span, whereas Agreeableness increased among young cohorts, was stable among middle-aged cohorts, and declined among the oldest old. Cross-sectional analyses suggested an increase in Conscientiousness throughout the life span, though longitudinal analyses suggested a slight decline in late life. There was an inverted U-shaped pattern for rank-order stability, with peak stability occurring in middle age. For three of the Big Five domains (Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness), age-related differences appeared to be somewhat more pronounced before age 30 than after age 30. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Identifying reliable patterns of age differences in personality can help clarify the nature of adult personality development. Previous studies have been limited because many have relied on convenience samples. In this study, we examined age differences in personality in two nationally representative samples, one from Switzerland and one from the United States. The results indicated that Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were positively associated with age, whereas Extraversion was negatively associated with age. However, the magnitude of age differences for Extraversion was much smaller than for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Openness showed a more complex trend such that 30- to 34-year-olds scored lower on Openness than younger age groups, whereas older groups scored somewhere in between. Inconsistent age differences were observed for Neuroticism. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The consistency of individual differences across time has implications for theory building and clinical applications. Indeed, personality psychologists have long worked to place constructs on the continuum of consistency of more trait-like to more state-like constructs. Recently, Chmielewski and Watson (2009) highlighted the importance of dependability coefficients for interpreting the results of stability studies. These coefficients provide an estimate of how strongly short-term transient error affects retest correlations for a given measure. In this article, we use a modified version of Kenny and Zautra's (1995, 2001) STARTS model to estimate dependability of personality, life satisfaction, and affect in a 2-month longitudinal study of 8 waves. Results from 226 undergraduate students indicated that personality ratings were least influenced by transient state factors, whereas affect was most influenced. We discuss these findings in terms of their implications for the continuum of consistency and for the practical issue of selecting retest intervals for dependability analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Longitudinal data from a national sample of Germans (N = 20,434) were used to evaluate stability and change in the Big Five personality traits. Participants completed a brief measure of personality twice, 4 years apart. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to establish measurement invariance over time and across age groups. Substantive questions about differential (or rank-order) and mean-level stability and change were then evaluated. Results showed that differential stability was relatively strong among all age groups but that it increased among young adults, peaked in later life, and then declined among the oldest old. Patterns of mean-level change showed that Extraversion and Openness declined over the life span, whereas Agreeableness increased. Mean levels of Conscientiousness increased among young adults and then decreased among older adults. Trajectories for Neuroticism were relatively flat, with slight increases during middle age and a slight decline in late life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT A common method of studying cross-situational variation in personality involves asking people to describe their behavior in several different contexts. Although this approach is intuitively appealing, it introduces a great deal of redundancy into the measurement process and may affect the interpretation of contextualized self-reports. Specifically, when participants are asked the same questions repeatedly in a single questionnaire, they may be compelled to focus on how their behavior is different. We tested this hypothesis by experimentally manipulating the number of contexts that were included in a measure of role-related personality. In 2 experiments (Study 1 N=377, Study 2 N=524), we found that multiple-role questionnaires produced greater variation in trait levels across roles, larger differences between general and role-specific ratings, and weaker correlations between general and role-specific ratings than single-role questionnaires. These findings illustrate how the measurement process can have an effect on the variability of responses to contextualized self-reports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-sectional age differences in the Big Five personality traits were examined in a nationally representative sample of Australians (N = 12,618; age range = 15-84). Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness were negatively associated with age, whereas Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were positively associated with age. Effect sizes comparing the youngest and the oldest sample members were usually medium to large in size. Item-level analysis revealed that although most personality descriptors showed patterns similar to those exhibited by their respective global traits, this was not always the case. Thus, investigations of narrower aspects of personality may reveal more nuanced age differences and may begin to explain contradictory results from different studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: One of the most enduring debates in the literature on subjective well-being concerns the importance of money. Studies consistently show that the correlation between income and well-being is small. This evidence has been interpreted to mean that money does not matter and that people’s intuitions about the causes of happiness are wrong. However, correlation coefficients are notoriously difficult to interpret, and thus it is possible that lay people’s intuitions are correct, whereas psychologists’ interpretation of correlation coefficients is wrong. Data from two large-scale studies replicate the relatively weak correlation between income and happiness. However, both studies show that these small correlations translate into large mean differences between rich and poor groups. These mean differences are medium in size even when the wealthy are compared to average. In addition, measurement error has negligible effects on the correlation coefficient, but has strong effects on the rich/poor happiness gap. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Cross-sectional age differences in the Big Five personality traits were investigated using 2 large datasets from Great Britain and Germany: the British Household Panel Study (BHPS; N ⩾ 14,039) and the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (GSEOP; N ⩾ 20,852). Participants, who ranged in age from 16 to the mid-80s, completed a 15-item version of the Big Five Inventory (e.g., John & Srivastava, 1999) in either 2005 or 2006. The observed age trends were generally consistent across both datasets. Extraversion and Openness were negatively associated with age, whereas Agreeableness was positively associated with age. Average levels of Conscientiousness were highest for participants in middle age. The only exception was Neuroticism, which was slightly negatively associated with age in the BHPS and slightly positively associated with age in the GSEOP. Neither gender nor education level were consistent moderators of age differences in the Big Five. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The association between Extraversion and positive affect is one of the most robust findings in the study of personality and emotion. Temperament models posit that the association is direct; instrumental models posit that the association is mediated by additional processes. Two experience sampling studies were conducted to test instrumental mechanisms that might underlie the effect. According to a mediation model, extraverts' greater social activity can account for their increased positive affect when compared to introverts. According to a person-by-situation interaction model, extraverts react more positively to social situations than do introverts, and this interaction can account for the association. Only weak support for the instrumental models was found; consistent with temperament models, a moderate direct association remained even after controlling for these effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A common interpretation of existing subjective well-being research is that long-term levels of well-being are almost completely stable. However, few studies have estimated stability and change using appropriate statistical models that can precisely address this question. The STARTS model () was used to analyze life satisfaction data from two nationally representative panel studies. Results show that 34–38% of the variance in observed scores is trait variance that does not change. An additional 29–34% can be accounted for by an autoregressive trait that is only moderately stable over time. Thus, although life satisfaction is moderately stable over long periods of time, there is also an appreciable degree of instability that might depend on contextual circumstances. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hedonic adaptation refers to the process by which individuals return to baseline levels of happiness following a change in life circumstances. Dominant models of subjective well-being (SWB) suggest that people can adapt to almost any life event and that happiness levels fluctuate around a biologically determined set point that rarely changes. Recent evidence from large-scale panel studies challenges aspects of this conclusion. Although inborn factors certainly matter and some adaptation does occur, events such as divorce, death of a spouse, unemployment, and disability are associated with lasting changes in SWB. These recent studies also show that there are considerable individual differences in the extent to which people adapt. Thus, happiness levels do change, and adaptation is not inevitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hedonic adaptation refers to the process by which individuals return to baseline levels of happiness following a change in life circumstances. Two nationally representative panel studies (Study 1: N = 39,987; Study 2: N = 27,406) were used to investigate the extent of adaptation that occurs following the onset of a long-term disability. In Study 1,679 participants who acquired a disability were followed for an average of 7.18 years before and 7.39 years after onset of the disability. In Study 2,272 participants were followed for an average of 3.48 years before and 5.31 years after onset. Disability was associated with moderate to large drops in happiness (effect sizes ranged from 0.40 to 1.27 standard daviations), followed by little adaptation over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although cross-sectional studies have shown a reliable association between marital status and subjective well-being, a recent longitudinal study [Lucas et al. , Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 84(3), pp.␣527–539] found no support for the idea that happiness increases after marriage. Instead, participants who got married reported short-term increases followed by complete adaptation back to baseline levels of well-being. However, researchers have criticized this study on two grounds. First, these results contradict cohort-based analyses from a nationally representative sample. Second, these analyses do not control for pre-marriage cohabitation, which could potentially inflate baseline levels of well-being. The original data (plus four additional waves) are reanalyzed to address these concerns. Results confirm that individuals do not get a lasting boost in life satisfaction following marriage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the hedonic treadmill model, good and bad events temporarily affect happiness, but people quickly adapt back to hedonic neutrality. The theory, which has gained widespread acceptance in recent years, implies that individual and societal efforts to increase happiness are doomed to failure. The recent empirical work outlined here indicates that 5 important revisions to the treadmill model are needed. First, individuals' set points are not hedonically neutral. Second, people have different set points, which are partly dependent on their temperaments. Third, a single person may have multiple happiness set points: Different components of well-being such as pleasant emotions, unpleasant emotions, and life satisfaction can move in different directions. Fourth, and perhaps most important, well-being set points can change under some conditions. Finally, individuals differ in their adaptation to events, with some individuals changing their set point and others not changing in reaction to some external event. These revisions offer hope for psychologists and policymakers who aim to decrease human misery and increase happiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-sectional studies show that divorced people report lower levels of life satisfaction than do married people. However, such studies cannot determine whether satisfaction actually changes following divorce. In the current study, data from an 18-year panel study of more than 30,000 Germans were used to examine reaction and adaptation to divorce. Results show that satisfaction drops as one approaches divorce and then gradually rebounds over time. However, the return to baseline is not complete. In addition, prospective analyses show that people who will divorce are less happy than those who stay married, even before either group gets married. Thus, the association between divorce and life satisfaction is due to both preexisting differences and lasting changes following the event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Six mood induction studies and a meta-analysis were conducted to test 2 models of the extraversion- pleasant affect relation. The affect-level model suggests that extraverts should be happier than introverts in both neutral and positive mood conditions. The reactivity model posits that extraverts react particularly strongly to pleasant stimuli and that they should be happier than introverts only in positive conditions. In all studies, extraverts failed to exhibit greater emotional reactivity when pleasantness items were analyzed. When activated positive affect items were analyzed, results were mixed. The meta-analysis confirmed that there is only a slight reactivity effect overall, and this effect emerges only in activated positive affect items. Furthermore, the meta-analysis showed that the correlation in neutral conditions is strong enough to support the affect-level model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to set-point theories of subjective well-being, people react to events but then return to baseline levels of happiness and satisfaction over time. We tested this idea by examining reaction and adaptation to unemployment in a 15-year longitudinal study of more than 24,000 individuals living in Germany. In accordance with set-point theories, individuals reacted strongly to unemployment and then shifted back toward their baseline levels of life satisfaction. However, on average, individuals did not completely return to their former levels of satisfaction, even after they became reemployed. Furthermore, contrary to expectations from adaptation theories, people who had experienced unemployment in the past did not react any less negatively to a new bout of unemployment than did people who had not been previously unemployed. These results suggest that although life satisfaction is moderately stable over time, life events can have a strong influence on long-term levels of subjective well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to adaptation theory, individuals react to events but quickly adapt back to baseline levels of subjective well-being. To test this idea, the authors used data from a 15-year longitudinal study of over 24,000 individuals to examine the effects of marital transitions on life satisfaction. On average, individuals reacted to events and then adapted back toward baseline levels. However, there were substantial individual differences in this tendency. Individuals who initially reacted strongly were still far from baseline years later, and many people exhibited trajectories that were in the opposite direction to that predicted by adaptation theory. Thus, marital transitions can be associated with long-lasting changes in satisfaction, but these changes can be overlooked when only average trends are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extraversion is a broad, multifaceted trait, yet researchers are still unsure of its defining characteristics. One possibility is that the essential feature of extraversion is the tendency to enjoy social situations. An alternative possibility is that extraversion represents sensitivity to rewards and the tendency to experience pleasant affect. In three studies, participants rated situations that varied on two dimensions: (a) whether they were social or nonsocial and (b) whether they were very pleasant, moderately pleasant, moderately unpleasant, or very unpleasant. Extraverts only rated social situations more positively than introverts did when the situations were pleasant, and extraverts also rated nonsocial situations more positively than introverts did if the situations were pleasant. Thus, the pleasantness of situations was more important than whether they were social or nonsocial in determining extraverts' and introverts' enjoyment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Factors that influence the relation between extraversion and pleasant affect were examined in 6 studies. In Studies 1 through 5, the authors used structural equation modeling techniques to test whether different extraversion and pleasant affect scales and the use of multiple methods of assessment influenced the strength of the relation. In Study 6, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of previous literature to calculate an average effect size and to assess the influence of moderator variables. Results from both the structural equation models and the recta-analysis showed that with only a few exceptions, the use of different extraversion and affect scales resulted in moderate to strong correlations. The use of "on-line" methods of mood assessment (moment reports or daily-diary reports) resulted in lower and more homogeneous correlations than did the use of global, retrospective measures of mood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychologists have not determined the defining characteristics of extraversion. In four studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that extraversion facets are linked by reward sensitivity. According to this hypothesis, only facets that reflect reward sensitivity should load on a higher order extraversion factor. This model was tested against a model in which sociability links the facets. The authors also tested the generalizability of the model in a diverse sample of participants from 39 nations, and they tested the model using widely used extraversion scales. Results of all studies indicate that only facets that reflect reward sensitivity load on a higher order extraversion factor and that this factor correlates strongly with pleasant affect. Although sociability is undoubtedly an important part of extraversion, these results suggest that extraverts' sociability may be a by-product of reward sensitivity, rather than the core feature of the trait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the question of which societal characteristics are likely to enhance subjective well-being. Empirical results bearing on four theories are presented: needs theory, goals theory, relative standards models, and cultural approaches. The theories are to a degree compatible, rather than completely contradictory. There is empirical support for each of the theories, but also there are data contradicting a simple formulation of each model, and no approach can by itself explain all of the extant findings. For both applied and theoretical reasons, it is imperative that we determine the types of societal characteristics that enhance subjective well-being. In this vein a model called Evaluation Theory is proposed, in which SWB depends on people's evaluations of self-relevant information. Attention is selective and therefore the factors that determine its focus are likely to influence evaluations of events. Thus, appraisals are likely to be influenced by chronically accessible information, which in turn is influenced by the person's needs, goals, and culture. Currently, salient information is seen as being a key to life satisfaction judgments. The present paper describes numerous limitations in current research suggesting studies that will allow more definitive theories to emerge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on evidence for W. Wilson's conclusions and discusses modern theories of subjective well-being (SWB) that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals and coping strategies. Interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB; Casual pathways leading to happiness.

The convergent and discriminant validities of well-being concepts were examined using multitrait--multimethod matrix analyses (D. T. Campbell & D. W. Fiske, 1959) on 3 sets of data. In Study 1, participants completed measures of life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, self-esteem, and optimism on 2 occasions 4 weeks apart and also obtained 3 informant ratings. In Study 2, participants completed each of the 5 measures on 2 occasions 2 years apart and collected informant reports at Time 2. In Study 3, participants completed 2 different scales for each of the 5 constructs. Analyses showed that (a) life satisfaction is discriminable from positive and negative affect, (b) positive affect is discriminable from negative affect, (c) life satisfaction is discriminable from optimism and self-esteem, and (d) optimism is separable from trait measures of negative affect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the experienced well-being of employed and unemployed workers. We use the survey-adapted Day Reconstruction Method of the Innovation Sample of the German Socio-Economic Panel Study to analyze the role of the employment status for well-being, incorporating time use. We use the novel P-index to summarize the average share of pleasurable minutes on a day and show that in contrast to evaluative life satisfaction the unemployed experiences more pleasurable minutes due to the absence of working episodes. Hence, we examine working episodes in depth. While working is among the activities with the highest propensities for an unpleasant experience, it is also among the most meaningful activities. We show that meaning is a central non-monetary determinant for pleasure at work and find that pleasure during work and job satisfaction have a comparable association with meaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated how the number of response options affects the psychometric properties of the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2). Using two large samples collected from a market research company (N s = 893 and 1,213), we tested how different response options of the BFI-2 influenced scale score distributions, internal consistency estimates, convergent validity correlations, and criterion validity correlations. Results suggest that score distributions were impacted by the number of response options such that ceiling and floor effects were more common when using two or three response options than when using more options. Estimates of Cronbach's alpha were generally lower with fewer scale points as compared with more scale points, but these effects disappeared when ordinal alpha was used. There were no systematic effects of response options on convergent validity and criterion validity correlations. Given these results, there seems to be few psychometric reasons for deciding whether to administer personality items with five, six, or seven scale points. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-report measures of global well-being are thought to reflect the overall quality of people's lives. However, several scholars have argued that people rely on heuristics, such as current mood, when reporting their global well-being. Experiential well-being measures, such as the day reconstruction method (DRM), have been proposed as an alternative technique to obtain a potentially more accurate assessment of well-being. Across two multimethod, short-term longitudinal studies, we compared the psychometric properties of global self-reports and short-form DRM-based assessments of well-being. We evaluated their stability across one month, tested their convergent validity using self–informant agreement, and evaluated correlations with personality traits. Results indicated that global measures of well-being were more stable than DRM-based experiential measures. Self–informant agreement was also either equal across global and DRM measures or higher for global measures. Correlations with personality were similar across approaches. These findings suggest that DRM and global measures of well-being have similar psychometric properties when used to provide an overall assessment of a person's typical level of subjective well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]