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The hydrological regime of Fuente de Piedra playa -lake (Málaga, southern Spain) has been significantly affected by the intensive exploitation of groundwater in the area. The playa -lake is situated above clays, marls, and gypsum, and under unaltered conditions received surface-subsurface runoff within the watershed as well as groundwater discharge from two carbonate aquifers. We have analyzed the structure of the main one, the Mollina-Camorra carbonate aquifer, by combining controlled source audio magnetotellurics (CSAMT), gravity prospecting, and time-domain electromagnetic (TDEM) soundings. This geophysical information, together with new structural and hydrogeological data, was gathered to develop a new conceptual hydrogeological model. This model allows the hydrological linkage of the carbonate aquifer with the playa -lake system to be established. Moreover, the intensive exploitation in the carbonate aquifer, even outside the watershed of the playa -lake, has affected the hydrological regime of the system. This multidisciplinary work demonstrates the potential of geophysical methods for understanding wetland-aquifer interaction, having important groundwater management implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary The carbonate aquifers of Sierra de Estepa, situated in southern Spain, are undergoing intensive groundwater exploitation. Consequently, the volume of pumping surpasses the average recharge for periods of several consecutive years. Under such conditions, nearby springs have either dried up or only function during short time periods, after very rainy episodes followed by long droughts. During the brief periods when the springs are active, their water and the water extracted by pumping are calcium bicarbonates, with a spatial–temporal variability of their physico-chemical characteristics that is mainly conditioned by the degree of functional karstification of each system. When the springs are inactive, the pumping water gradually increases in salinity and becomes HCO 3 ClCaNa, ClHCO 3 NaCa and ClNa. Under the new conditions caused by so much pumping, the main factors determining the hydrochemical changes are the mixing of waters and the subsequent reactions of dissolution–precipitation between (1) the recharge coming from rainwater, (2) the hypersaline inputs from the clay-evaporite aquitards situated on the edges and at the base of the aquifer, and (3) the water stored in each aquifer. The hydrochemical information acquired allowed us to characterize and model the groundwater of these aquifers, to study the causes of its great spatial and temporal variability, and explain the influence of exploitation. This research shows that making sustainable use of water resources associated with carbonate aquifers calls for sound knowledge of the relationship between the aquifer and other bodies of groundwater or surface water, the hydrochemical quality of these possible inputs, and the vulnerability of the aquifer to exploitation, which in turn is conditioned by the ratio between water reserves and recharge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A cequias de careo constitute the oldest managed aquifer recharge system of Europe. • In Middle Ages, Muslims derived meltwater and recharged it through uncoated channels. • The managed aquifer recharge technique helped ensure water availability downstream. • This case study illustrates a paradigm that should be used in future water crises. • This MAR technique may prove key for adaptation to climate change in Alpine regions. In Sierra Nevada (southern Spain), the highest mountain range in southern Europe, the application of an ancestral Integrated Water Resources Management system (IWRM), based on the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water, provides water resources for irrigation and supply in the driest months of the year in this semiarid mountain region. Meltwater is derived from the headwaters of the mountain streams and rivers through a set of uncoated channels excavated in the ground (locally known as acequias de careo) to infiltrate at the upper part of the valleys. Water infiltrated along the acequias de careo slowly flows down the hillsides, through the weathered zone of the hard rock aquifer and the glacial and periglacial sediments. The recharge accomplished through this Managed Aquifer Recharge technique (MAR) activates numerous springs located halfway down the hillside and increases the base flow of the rivers. In this study, focused on a careo channel located on the southern slope of Sierra Nevada called Acequia de El Espino, different archaeological, sedimentological, geophysical and hydrogeological techniques are applied to determine the age and the efficiency of this ancestral example of a MAR and IWRM system. Results suggest that the acequias de careo may be the oldest MAR system in Europe, and that this MAR technique could be applied in other high mountain alpine watersheds to mitigate the effects of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research underlines the need to improve water management policies for areas linked to confined karstic aquifers subjected to intensive exploitation, and to develop additional efforts towards monitoring their subsidence evolution. We analyze subsidence related to intensive use of groundwater in a confined karstic aquifer, through the use of the InSAR technique, by the southern coast of Spain (Costa del Sol). Carbonates are overlain by an unconfined detritic aquifer with interlayered high transmissivity rocks, in connection with the Mediterranean Sea, where the water level is rather stable. Despite this, an accumulated deformation in the line-of-sight (LOS) direction greater than −100 mm was observed by means of the ERS-1/2 (1992–2000) and Envisat (2003–2009) satellite SAR sensors. During this period, the Costa del Sol experienced a major population increase due to the expansion of the tourism industry, with the consequent increase in groundwater exploitation. The maximum LOS displacement rates recorded during both time spans are respectively −6 mm/yr and −11 mm/yr, respectively. During the entire period, there was an accumulated descent of the confined water level of 140 m, and several fluctuations of more than 80 m correlating with the subsidence trend observed for the whole area. Main sedimentary depocenters (up to 800 m), revealed by gravity prospecting, partly coincide with areas of subsidence maxima; yet ground deformation is also influenced by other factors, the main ones being the fine-grained facies distribution and rapid urbanization due to high touristic pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing water resources in high mountain semi-arid zones is essential to be able to manage and plan the use of these resources downstream where they are used. However, it is not easy to manage an unknown resource, a situation that is common in the vast majority of high mountain hydrological basins. In the present work, the discharge flow in an ungauged basin is estimated using the hydrological parameters of an HBV (Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansavdelning) model calibrated in a “neighboring gauged basin”. The results of the hydrological simulation obtained in terms of average annual discharge are validated using the VI-ETo model. This model relates a simple hydrological balance to the discharge of the basin with the evaporation of the vegetal cover of the soil, and this to the SAVI index, which is obtained remotely by means of satellite images. The results of the modeling for both basins underscore the role of the underground discharge in the total discharge of the hydrological system. This is the result of the deglaciation process suffered by the high mountain areas of the Mediterranean arc. This process increases the infiltration capacity of the terrain, the recharge and therefore the discharge of the aquifers that make up the glacial and periglacial sediments that remain exposed on the surface as witnesses of what was the last glaciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of aquifer geometry is essential for efficient and sustainable groundwater management, particularly in carbonate aquifers due to uncertainties inherent to karstic systems. The geological structure and hydrogeological continuity of Los Chotos-Sazadilla-Los Nacimientos and La Serreta-Gante-Cabeza Montosa carbonate aquifers (Jaén; SE Spain) have been established through structural measurements, geophysical prospecting -magnetic, gravity and time-domain electromagnetics (TDEM)- and the study of piezometric levels. Yet the scarce hydrogeological data, the complexity of the tectonic structure and the presence of Plio-Quaternary rocks covering the highly permeable carbonate rocks make it difficult to establish a robust conceptual hydrogeological model of the aquifer. This study focuses on an area where hydrogeological disconnection between the two aquifers was traditionally assumed, given the diapiric emplacement of low permeable rocks between them. The new geophysical data demonstrate connection between aquifers that implies greater groundwater reserves than previously supposed. This field example supports the suitability of the combined use of electromagnetic methods with gravity and magnetic research that have been poorly combined up to recent times for hydrogeological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We characterize the fracture pattern, including both meso-scale joints and macro-scale faults, within the central sector of Sierra de las Nieves (Betic Cordillera, S Spain), which contains one of the largest karstification systems in Europe. Structural data were compared with the direction pattern of the karstic conduit network of the largest caves. Carbonate rocks were deformed in a collisional setting and exposed at the surface since the early Miocene. Normal and normal–oblique faults trending NW–SE to WNW–ESE are the most prominent brittle structures, having formed coevally with shorter NE–SW normal to normal–dextral after the main thrusting phase. In addition, two main open joint sets striking NW–SE and NE–SW developed on a broad scale. Orthogonal normal faults and open joints suggest an extensional setting characterized by horizontal minimum (S 3 ) and intermediate (S 2 ) stress axes of similar magnitudes that intermittently shifted their positions during the middle-to-late Miocene. Vertical water flow coming from direct recharge sectors tends to infiltrate across these high-dipping faults, mainly concentrating at fault intersections, thus favoring sub-vertical conduit formation within the vadose zone. Horizontal paleo-phreatic levels are perched linked to the recent uplift undergone by the sector, giving us the opportunity to analyze the incidence of fractures at the phreatic zone. Joint sets determine the hydraulic anisotropy within the former phreatic levels. Because our study illustrates the primary role of diverse tectonic structures during massive multiphase cave development above and below the water table, it could contribute to better constraining of the models of karstic conduit formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time series of environmental tracers (groundwater stable isotope composition, electrical conductivity and temperature) and concentration breakthrough curves of artificial tracers (uranine, eosine, amino-G and naphtionate) have been analyzed to characterize fast preferential and slow matrix in-transit recharge flows in the Paleocene-Eocene limestone aquifer of the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park, an alpine karst system drained by a water table cave, a rare hydrological feature in high mountain karst systems with similar characteristics. Snowmelt favors the areal recharge of the system. This process is reflected in the large proportion of groundwater flowing through the connected porosity structure of the karst aquifer, which amounts the 75% of the total system water discharge. From the perspective of water resources recovery, the water capacity of the fissured-porous zone (matrix) represents 99% of the total karst system storage. The volume associated to the karst conduits is very small. The estimated mean travel times are 9 days for conduits and 475 days for connected porosity. These short travel times reveal high vulnerability of the karst system to pollutants in broad sense and a great impact of climate change on the associated water resources. Unlabelled Image • The first hydrogeological characterization of the Garcés Karst system is presented. • Environmental and dye tracers are essential to study complex alpine karst aquifers. • The long presence of snow controls the hydrogeological system response. • Short travel times are plausible given the karstic nature of the aquifer system. • The karst system is highly vulnerable to pollutants and climate change impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Water resources in high mountain karst aquifers are usually characterized by high rainfall, recharge and discharge that lead to the sustainability of the downstream ecosystems. Nevertheless, these hydrological systems are vulnerable to the global change impact. The mean transit time (MTT) is a key parameter to describe the behavior of these hydrologic systems and also to assess their vulnerability. This work is focused on estimating MTT by using environmental tracers in the framework of high-mountain karst systems with a very thick unsaturated zone (USZ). To this end, it is adapted to alpine zones a methodology that combines a semi-distributed rainfall-runoff model to estimate recharge time series, and a lumped-parameter model to obtain ΜΤΤ. The methodology has been applied to the Port del Comte Massif (PCM) hydrological system (Southeastern Pyrenees, NE Spain), a karst aquifer system with an overlying 1000 m thick USZ. Six catchment areas corresponding to most important springs of the system are considered. The obtained results show that hydrologically the behavior of the system can be described by an exponential flow model (EM), with MTT ranging between 1.9 and 2.9 years. These ΜΤΤ values are shorter than those obtained by considering a constant recharge rate along time, which is the easiest and most applied aquifer recharge hypothesis when estimating ΜΤΤ through lumped-parameter models. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Amplitude of seasonal isotopic composition of rainfall depends on elevation. • Moisture generating rainfall in the study zone comes from the Mediterranean. • The aquifer main recharge zones located at elevations between 2050 and 2387 m a.s.l • Considering transient recharge improves the estimations of mean transit times. • Transit times in agreement with the karstic nature of the aquifer system [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many of the alpine watersheds of Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain) exists an ancient network of dug canals that collect, transport and facilitate the recharge the snowmelt in the underlying aquifer during the spring season. This practice, known as careos , in the lower part of the watersheds supply drinking water as spring discharge during the dry season. To study how this managed recharge technique modifies the natural response of these basins this work focuses on characterizing the hydrological behavior of one of the sites, the Berchules watershed. The mechanisms for mineralization of groundwater are based on geochemical processes such as evapo-concentration in the soil layer and silicate mineral weathering due to dissolved CO 2 originated from both soil biogenic processes and the atmosphere. Groundwater presents a main hydrogeochemical calcium‑magnesium-bicarbonate type facies, which is associated to groundwater flowing through the upper weathered silicates and quickly drained through springs located in the uplands and in the intermediate altitude catchment zone. Additionally, in the lower part of the basin some springs discharge mineralized groundwater with a sodium–calcium–bicarbonate composition associated to regional groundwater flow. In natural conditions, this hydrogeological system behaves as a sloping aquifer, occurring recharge between 1400 and 2500 m a.s.l. The springs discharge groundwater with an isotopic content and temperature in coherence with the local rainfall isotopic and thermal atmospheric altitudinal lines. Nevertheless, once the careo recharge begins the affected springs reveal the fingerprint of the concentrated recharge system by blurring the fingerprint of both the isotopic and thermal altitudinal dependence in the springs discharge. This validates the previous conceptual model and supports average recharge values of 141 ± 140 mm/yr and total average water resources of 181 ± 111 mm/yr which include a 40% increase in the study period due to the effect of the acequias de careo . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The time series of stable water isotope composition relative to IAEA-GNIP meteorological stations located in alpine zones are analyzed in order to study how the amplitude of the seasonal isotopic composition of precipitation ( A δ ) varies along a vertical transect. A clear relationship between A δ and local evaporation is obtained, with slopes of − 0.87 ‰/100 mm/yr and − 7.3 ‰/100 mm/yr for A δ 18 O and A δ 2 H , respectively. When all sampling points of the vertical transect receive the same moisture sources, then a linear relationship between A δ and elevation is obtained, with vertical gradients of 0.16 ‰/100 mm/yr and 1.46 ‰/100 mm/yr for A δ 18 O and A δ 2 H , respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The suitability of the combined microgravity and electrical tomography to detect and characterize caves deeply buried in limestones is tested. We have selected the buried Algaidilla cave, in the Estepa range (western Betic Cordillera), which is partially submerged below the water table and which was intersected between 26 and 66m in depth by two boreholes. At that location, microgravity, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and induced polarization (IP) data was collected along four profiles. Algaidilla cave is associated with a −0.5mGal residual gravity anomaly minimum. Microgravity models reveal an approximately horizontal N–S elongated shape with a maximum length of 150m and a width of 40m. Resistivity variations provide information on the cave sectors remaining above, as well as below the water table. Forward modeling and depth of investigation (DOI) support the suitability of ERT to constrain the cave geometry. The cave is identified as having an intermediate to low-resistivity feature, which approximately matches the 250Ω·m contour line along its ceiling. In addition, induced polarization models show high chargeability anomalies probably associated with decalcification clays. The location and approximately geometry of Algaidilla cave estimated from geophysical modeling suggests that nearby overburden may develop cave-ins and collapse sinkholes. Microgravity is proved as a powerful tool to detect caves at this depth, but this method alone fails to estimate the geometry. ERT results delineate the cavity both above and below the water table. Although the deepest sectors of the models should be interpreted with caution since they are less constrained by the data, below the water table the cavity shows great resistivity contrast with regard to the background carbonate. In addition, this study points out the usefulness of the IP method for detecting decalcification clays, often present at the base of karstic caves. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Most of the athalassic saline and hypersaline lakes are located in arid and semiarid regions where water availability drives the hydrological dynamics of the lake itself and the associated ecosystems. This is the case of the Salada de Chiprana Lake, in the Ebro River basin (Spain). It is the only athalassic permanent hypersaline lake in Western Europe, and where rare and endangered bacterial mats exist. This work presents a robust hydrogeological conceptual model for the lake system. The model evaluates the contribution of groundwater discharge to the whole water budget and explains the hydrological behaviour of the lake system. The lake behaves as a flow-through system rather than a closed basin. About 40% of total water outflow from the lake occurs as groundwater, whereas evaporation accounts for the remaining 60%. The surface water inflows are variable, but the groundwater contribution seems almost constant, amounting to 13% of the average total water inflow and contributing 1.9% of salt income. The high water salinity of the lake is controlled by evaporation, by saline water inflows from irrigation return flows, and the by groundwater outflows. The role of groundwater should be taken into account when drafting the water and land planning, once the conditions for the conservation of the algal mats are defined. A major contribution of this study is the water balance in the Salada de Chiprana Lake, which is consistent with a robust hydrogeological conceptual model defined upon scarce hydrogeological, hydrochemical and isotopic data in the local context as conditioned by the regional behaviour. The water balance is a key tool to help to correctly manage this unique athalassic saline lake, and the approach used here can be extrapolated to other similar ecosystems around the world. Unlabelled Image • Regional groundwater flow lines discharge into the Salada de Chiprana Lake. • Groundwater discharging into the lake is recharged at the Iberian Range slopes. • Groundwater represents 13% of the total inflows into the Salada de Chiprana Lake. • The lake behaves as a flow-through system rather than a closed endorheic basin. • Lake water salinity controlled by evaporation, return flows and groundwater discharge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]