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Summary: Crops generally have seeds larger than their wild progenitors´ and with reduced dormancy. In wild plants, seed mass and allocation to the seed coat (a proxy for physical dormancy) scale allometrically so that larger seeds tend to allocate less to the coats. Larger seeds and lightweight coats might thus have evolved as correlated traits in crops.We tested whether 34 crops and 22 of their wild progenitors fit the allometry described in the literature, which would indicate co‐selection of both traits during crop evolution. Deviations from the allometry would suggest that other evolutionary processes contribute to explain the emergence of larger, lightweight‐coated seeds in crops.Crops fitted the scaling slope but deviated from its intercept in a consistent way: Seed coats of crops were lighter than expected by their seed size. The wild progenitors of crops displayed the same trend, indicating that deviations cannot be solely attributed to artificial selection during or after domestication.The evolution of seeds with small coats in crops likely resulted from a combination of various pressures, including the selection of wild progenitors with coats smaller than other wild plants, further decreases during early evolution under cultivation, and indirect selection due to the seed coat‐seed size allometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food crops are a vital source of nutrition for humans and domestic animals, with an estimated 4 billion metric tons of food produced per year. Crops do not only provide yields, but their traits also play a significant role in regulating the ecosystem processes of croplands, affecting local biotas, water balance, nutrient and carbon cycling. Domestication has led to significant changes in crop traits, making it important to understand the recent evolution of crops and how they differ from wild plants.In this paper I review the evidence on how the ecological traits of herbaceous crops have evolved during and after domestication. Loss of seed dispersal mechanisms, increased plant and organ sizes, high rates of consumption by herbivores and fast decomposition of residues by decomposer microbes in the soil, all have evolved independently in domestication processes of different crops.I also point out types of traits for which we have not identified common responses to domestication, be it because domestication processes of the different crop species are disparate, or because of lack of strong evidence. Those traits include resource acquisition rates of leaves and roots, and whole‐plant growth rates. Then, I discuss research gaps in the field, including how to advance knowledge for those traits that show apparently idiosyncratic responses to domestication.Finally, I emphasize the importance of understanding the interactions of crops with other organisms and the environment to breed crops that deliver yield and other services required from croplands. To this end, I introduce an ideotype for sustainable agriculture, which might inspire the breeding of multipurpose herbaceous crops, in the same way than the ideotypes of the Green Revolution inspired the breeding of elite varieties to foster yields under conventional agriculture. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seeds, growth rates and duration of growth influence plant development. However, we lack a mechanistic understanding of how they lead to larger and higher‐yielding plants, as these traits have not yet been explicitly studied in combination and across ontogeny. Seed size and growth dynamics have evolved differently during domestication and improvement. Nevertheless, it remains unclear whether the relationships between these traits and their contribution to plant size and yield have also changed over the course of crop evolution.Here we grew wild, landrace and improved accessions of 18 annual herbaceous crops in a glasshouse. For each plant, we measured seed mass, growth rate and duration of vegetative growth. We also measured plant size at three ontogenetic stages: seedling, juvenile and mature, and reproductive output. Using path analyses, we tested causal relationships between the traits and quantified their relative importance in determining mature plant size and yield.Seed mass and duration of vegetative growth were more important than growth rates in explaining variations in mature plant size and yield among species. Domesticated plants were larger, had heavier seeds and higher yields, but did not grow faster or for longer time‐spans than their wild progenitors. Trait relationships did not differ between the wild, landrace and improved accessions.Our results suggest that annual herbs reach larger sizes primarily through a combination of heavier seeds and longer vegetative growth periods. Moreover, domestication has increased plant size only through the heavy‐seed causal pathway, via cascading effects during ontogeny. However, the high yields of modern crops hardly be explained by the traits considered here, suggesting the importance of other drivers, such as roots and their microbiome.Synthesis. We provide a better mechanistic understanding of the size axis of global plant trait variation and emphasise the role of growth duration in explaining the diversity of mature plant sizes. Seeds and growth dynamics are highly functionally coordinated with plant size, and this coordination has changed little during crop evolution. Our results highlight that multi‐trait relationships throughout plant ontogeny play a key role in governing how domestication has influenced plant size and crop yields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation: Knowledge on the origins of food crops in the wild is abundant but fragmentary and unconsolidated, which hinders macroecological approaches to long‐standing questions on the phylogeography and history of crop origins. Main types of variable contained: (a) Comprehensive checklist of crop species cultivated for food; (b) data on diverse continuous and categorical descriptors of antiquity of cultivation (earliest written records of cultivation and of domestication), organ harvested for primary use, and growth form; (c) identities, geographic distribution and current climate at the origin of crops' wild progenitors; (d) a time‐calibrated molecular phylogeny (Phylo Food v 1.0) of food crops. Spatial location and grain: Global. Spatial accuracy of geographic records for wild progenitors varies among Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) source databases. WorldClim data were retrieved at 2.5 min (approximately 4.5 km at the equator) spatial resolution. Time period and grain: Temporal accuracy of estimation of cultivation antiquity varies among sources, but unit of measurements is years ago. The scale of the phylogenetic tree is millions of years ago. Major taxa and level of measurement: Flowering plants. Specifically, 866 species of food crops and 901 species of wild progenitors. Most information was retrieved at the species level. However, geographic occurrence of wild progenitors was obtained from GBIF records of observations of individuals of a given species in the field. Software format: Crop Origins v 1.0 and Phylo Food v 1.0 are provided as zipped files in the Supporting Information of this paper. The zipped files contain a. csv file with v 1.0 of the Crop Origins database, a. tre file with Newick format as Phylo Food v 1.0, metadata and literature sources files for both resources, and R code used to build Phylo Food v 1.0. The resources are also deposited, and will be regularly updated, at https://rubenmilla.github.io/Crop_Origins_Phylo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop domestication has resulted in relevant phenotypic divergences between crop plants and wild progenitors, but domestication effects on phenotypic plasticity are poorly known. We grew plants of domesticated and wild progenitor accessions of seven taxonomically-diverse crops in three experimental glasshouse treatments differing in soil water and nutrient availabilities, and measured growth, morphological and physiological traits that are key in plant responses to water and nutrient limitations. We compared growth performance, trait means, and norms of reaction between domestication statuses and crop species. Phenotypes were significantly affected by the experimental treatments. Under low water and low nutrient availabilities, plants decreased specific leaf area to produce smaller and thicker leaves, and decreased stomatal conductance. Plasticity to changes in water availability was more pronounced than to varying nutrient supply. Domesticated and wild accessions significantly differed in plasticity patterns to limiting water for several key traits (maximum height, total leaf area, plant-level photosynthetic rate and growth performance traits). Our results thus provide initial insight into generalized domestication effects on phenotypic plasticity. Importantly, crop plants outperformed wild plants in favorable conditions, but suffered a higher loss of performance under water stress, which contrasts with studies suggesting that selection for high performance in optimum conditions might also improve it in stressful environments. We propose that the greater phenotypic homeostasis of the wild progenitors may be a target for future breeding focused on selection for adaptive norms of reaction in heterogeneous environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our understanding of domestication comes largely from archeology and genetics. Here, we advocate using current ecological theory and methodologies to provide novel insights into the causes and limitations of evolution under cultivation, as well as into the wider ecological impacts of domestication. We discuss the importance of natural selection under cultivation, that is, the forces promoting differences in Darwinian fitness between plants in crop populations and of constraints, that is, limitations of diverse nature that, given values for trait X, shorten the range of variation of trait Y, during the domestication process. Throughout this opinion paper, we highlight how ecology can yield insight into the effects of domestication on plant traits, on crop feedback over ecological processes, and on how species interactions develop in croplands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Lipophilic antioxidants play dual key roles in edible seeds (i) as preservatives of cell integrity and seed viability by preventing the oxidation of fats, and (ii) as essential nutrients for human and animal life stock. It has been well documented that plant domestication and post-domestication evolution frequently resulted in increased seed size and palatability, and reduced seed dormancy. Nevertheless, and surprisingly, it is poorly understood how agricultural selection and cultivation affected the physiological fitness and the nutritional quality of seeds. Fabaceae have the greatest number of crop species of all plant families, and most of them are cultivated for their highly nutritious edible seeds. Here, we evaluate whether evolution of plants under cultivation has altered the integrated system formed by membranes (fatty acids) and lipophilic antioxidants (carotenoids and tocopherols), in the ten most economically important grain legumes and their closest wild relatives, i.e.: Arachis(peanut), Cicer(chickpea), Glycine(soybean), Lathyrus(vetch), Lens(lentil), Lupinus(lupin), Phaseolus(bean), Pisum(pea), Vicia(faba bean) and Vigna(cowpea). Results Unexpectedly, we found that following domestication, the contents of carotenoids, including lutein and zeaxanthin, decreased in all ten species (total carotenoid content decreased 48% in average). Furthermore, the composition of carotenoids changed, whereby some carotenoids were lost in most of the crops. An undirected change in the contents of tocopherols and fatty acids was found, with contents increasing in some species and decreasing in others, independently of the changes in carotenoids. In some species, polyunsaturated fatty acids (linolenic acid especially), α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol decreased following domestication. Conclusions The changes in carotenoids, tocopherols and fatty acids are likely side-effects of the selection for other desired traits such as the loss of seed dormancy and dispersal mechanisms, and selection for seed storability and taste. This work may serve as baseline to broaden our knowledge on the integrated changes on crop fitness and nutritional quality following domestication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stomata are the major gates regulating substrate availability for photosynthesis and water loss. Although both processes are critical to yield and to resource-use efficiency, we lack a comprehensive picture on how domestication and further breeding have impacted on leaf stomata. To fill this gap, stomatal sizes and densities were screened in cultivated and wild ancestor representatives of a uniquely large group of 24 herbaceous crops. Anatomical data and gas-exchange models were combined to compute maximum potential conductance to water, separately for upper and lower leaf sides. The evolution of maximum conductance under domestication was diverse. Several crops increased, others decreased (noticeably high-conductance species), and others kept a similar potential conductance following domestication. It was found that the contribution of upper leaf sides to maximum conductance was statistically higher in cultivated than in wild ancestors. For crops showing this response, reduced stomatal density in the lower side of domesticated leaves was responsible for the observed ‘adaxialization’ of conductance. Increases in the size of stomata at the upper epidermis played a comparatively minor role. Nevertheless, this overall response was varied in magnitude and direction, signalling crop-wise specificities. Observed patterns reflect only potential conductances based on anatomical traits and should be used with care until actual physiological outcomes are measured. Together with advancements in the developmental genetics of stomata, our findings might hint at new breeding avenues, focused on stomata distribution. Provided urgent needs for increasing yields, the opportunities of enhancing traits of the physiological relevance of stomata should not be ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestication took plants from natural environments to agro-ecosystems, where resources are generally plentiful and plant life is better buffered against environmental risks such as drought or pathogens. We hypothesized that predictions derived from the comparison of low vs high resource ecosystems (faster-growing plants promoting faster nutrient cycling in the latter) extrapolate to the process of domestication., We conducted the first comprehensive assessment of the consequences of domestication on litter quality and key biogeochemical processes by comparing 24 domesticated crops against their closest wild ancestors. Twelve litter chemistry traits, litter decomposability and indicators of soil carbon ( C) and nitrogen ( N) cycling were assessed in each domesticated vs wild ancestor pair. These assessments were done in microbial-poor and microbial-rich soils to exemplify intensively and extensively managed agricultural soils, respectively., Plant domestication has increased litter quality, encouraging litter decomposability (36% and 44% increase in the microbial-rich and microbial-poor soils, respectively), higher soil [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Laboratory decomposition experiments measuring the mineralization of C from plant residue are increasingly used to test the effects of different litter sources and soil conditions. To date, the most widely used methods are infra-red gas analysis (IRGA) and gas chromatography, which are time-consuming, and relatively expensive and complex to operate. The aim of this study was to devise a simple and rapid laboratory method to assess litter decomposition rates at frequent time intervals. We modified the MicroResp™ system to measure the amount of CO2 produced by two soils supporting contrasting microbial communities and containing the litter of eight crop species. The method was sensitive enough to differentiate both soil microbial communities and litter qualities. The method combines the accuracy of gas chromatography with the speed of absorbance measurements obtained via microplate readers. This technique provides an effective means for devising complex litter decomposition experiments capable of addressing the joint influence of multiple species, soil communities, environmental conditions, and their multiple interactions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background and Aims Research on the ability of plants to recognize kin and modify plant development to ameliorate competition with coexisting relatives is an area of very active current exploration. Empirical evidence, however, is insufficient to provide a sound picture of this phenomenon. Methods An experiment was designed to assess multi-trait phenotypic expression in response to competition with conspecifics of varied degrees of genealogical relatedness. Groups of siblings, cousins and strangers of Lupinus angustifolius were set in competition in a pots assay. Several whole-plant and organ-level traits, directly related to competition for above- and below-ground resources, were measured. In addition, group-level root proliferation was measured as a key response trait to relatedness to neighbours, as identified in previous work. Key Results No major significant phenotypic differences were found between individuals and groups that could be assigned to the gradient of relatedness used here. This occurred in univariate models, and also when multi-trait interactions were evaluated through multi-group comparisons of Structural Equation Models. Root proliferation was higher in phenotypically more heterogeneous groups, but phenotypic heterogeneity was independent of the relatedness treatments of the experiment, and root proliferation was alike in the neighbourhoods of siblings, cousins and strangers. Conclusions In contrast to recent findings in other species, genealogical relatedness to competing neighbours has a negligible impact on the phenotypic expression of individuals and groups of L. angustifolius. This suggests that kin recognition needs further exploration to assess its generality, the ecological scenarios where it might have been favoured or penalized by natural selection, and its preponderance in different plant lineages. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Leafing intensity, i.e. the number of leaves per unit of stem volume or mass, is a common developmental correlate of leaf size. However, the ecological significance and the functional implications of variation in leafing intensity, other than its relation to leaf size, are unknown. Here, we explore its relationships with plant height, growth form, leaf size, and leaf habit to test a series of corollaries derived from the leafing intensity premium hypothesis. Volume-based leafing intensities and plant heights were recorded for 109 woody species from the subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests of eastern China. In addition, we compiled leafing intensity data from published literature, and combined it with our data to form a 398 species dataset, to test for differences of leafing intensity between plant growth forms (i.e. herbaceous and woody) and leaf habits (i.e. deciduous and evergreens). Leafing intensity was negatively correlated with plant height and individual leaf mass. Volume-based leafing intensities were significantly higher in herbaceous species than in woody species, and also higher in deciduous than in evergreen woody species. In conclusion, leafing intensity relates strongly to plant height, growth form, leaf size, and leaf habit in directions generally in accordance to the leafing intensity premium hypothesis. These results can be interpreted in terms of the evolution of adaptive strategies involving response to herbivory, competitive ability for light and reproductive economy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background and Aims Despite long-held interest, knowledge on why leaf size varies widely among species is still incomplete. This study was conducted to assess whether abiotic factors, phylogenetic histories and multi-trait interactions act together to shape leaf size. Methods Fifty-seven pairs of altitudinal vicariant species were selected in northern Spain, and leaf area and a number of functionally related leaf, shoot and whole plant traits were measured for each pair. Structural equation modelling helped unravel trait interactions affecting leaf size, and Mantel tests weighed the relative relevance of phylogeny, environment and trait interactions to explain leaf size reduction with altitude. Key Results Leaves of highland vicariants were generally smaller than those of lowlands. However, the extent of leaf size reduction with increasing altitude was widely variable among genera: from approx. 700 cm2 reduction (96 % in Polystichum) to approx. 30 cm2 increase (37 % in Sorbus). This was partially explained by shifts in leaf, shoot and whole plant traits (35–64 % of explained variance, depending on models), with size/number trade-offs more influential than shifts in leaf form and leaf economics. Shifts in traits were more important than phylogenetic distances or site-specific environmental variation in explaining the degree of leaf size reduction with altitude. Conclusions Ecological filters, constraints due to phylogenetic history (albeit modest in the study system), and phenotypic integration contribute jointly to shape single-trait evolution. Here, it was found that phenotypic change was far more important than shared ancestry to explaine leaf size differences of closely related species segregated along altitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Plant phenological studies in the Mediterranean have traditionally focused on the limits that summer drought exerts over plant seasonal behaviour. However, Mediterranean areas also occur across extensive regions under cooler climates. Here, we analyse phenological data of Mediterranean woody species from winter-cold sites to address the following questions: what is the most limiting period of the year for phenological development? How, and how synchronously, do different phenophases adjust to the bimodal limitation of summer drought and winter cold? How ample is the suit of phenological strategies that are successful for Mediterranean phanaerophytes from cool areas? We selected 11 diverse species of Mediterranean deciduous and evergreen phanaerophytes, and located one representative population per species in a region under continental Mediterranean climate. Vegetative growth, leaf shedding, flower bud formation, flowering, fruiting, and seed dispersal were monitored during 2 years per species, on a monthly basis. Then, we elaborated phenological diagrams, and developed indexes of phenophase overlap, of length of the phenological cycle, of phenological synchrony at the phenophase and population levels, and of climate suitability for each phenophase. Winter was clearly the most inactive period for this group of species. Vegetative growth occurred in the most suitable time of the year for plant growth, while reproductive phenophases occurred more spread along the year. Phenological synchrony was the highest for flowering, and was lower for vegetative phenophases and fruit growth. Our set of species was diverse in terms of degree of overlap among vegetative and reproductive phenophases, and also in terms of the length of the phenological cycle as a whole. In conclusion, we identified which are the climatic requirements for each phenophase to occur. Also, we recognized a series of continuous traits that tend to co-vary among species as a phenological syndrome: from those species that overlap phenophases, show short phenological cycles, and high degree of phenological synchrony to those with sequencing of phenophases, long phenological cycles, and low within-population synchrony. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

1. Recent reports provide empirical evidence for a negative isometric scaling of (log)leaf number per unit shoot volume (i.e. leafing intensity) to (log)leaf size in woody plants. In this context, a theory of leaf size variation was anticipated, stating that natural selection should have favoured high leafing intensity, given that most tree and shrub species are small-leaved. Leaf size is thus proposed to be a mere correlate of leafing intensity. This was coined the leafing intensity premium hypothesis. 2. I investigated the generality of the leaf size–number trade-off by testing its extension to a set of 60 small-stature species, growing along an altitude gradient. Also, I compiled data from 224 species and re-analysed their leaf size and leafing intensity. Finally, I explored the validity of the leafing intensity premium hypothesis to account for the leaf size–number trade-off, if the latter was sustained, and examined patterns of coordinated evolution of leaf size and leafing intensity across seed plant lineages. 3. Negative isometric scaling was supported in all analyses, except when evergreens were considered in isolation. Frequency distribution of both leaf size and leafing intensity was severely right-skewed in the 224-species data set, which provided no evidence in support of the view that natural selection favoured species with high leafing intensity. 4. Node divergences in the phylogenetic tree showed a tendency for inverse coordinated evolution of leafing intensity and leaf size. However, interactions between environments and divergence patterns, and also node-wise peculiarities, were detected. 5. Synthesis. The leaf size–number trade-off is of general scope, although scaling exponents differ among evergreen and deciduous species. In addition, signals of coordinated evolution of both traits across the seed plant tree were detected. Still, the leafing intensity premium hypothesis cannot be supported, since leafing intensity of present-day species is not particularly biased towards high scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Improving our knowledge on plant functions underlying shifts in species ranges along altitudinal and latitudinal gradients is a research priority to understand biotic responses to climate change. Although much is known about biological responses to elevation, coupled observations of ecophysiological and reproductive traits with whole-plant performance metrics are rare, and thus our understanding disjunct rather than holistic. 2. We expected growth and reproductive performance to decrease with elevation, irrespective of adjustments in traits, modifications in allocation, or congeneric shifts in populations. To test this hypothesis we assessed growth, reproductive investments and traits related to resource use efficiency and reproductive success in populations of two vicariant species growing along an elevation gradient: Saxifraga trifurcata (lowland species) and S. canaliculata (highland species). 3. For most metrics, a relationship with elevation arose, mostly related to the replacement of species, but also to within-species variation in S. trifurcata. Leaves of S. canaliculata, and of the higher populations of S. trifurcata, were denser, had lower specific leaf area (SLA) and lower N concentration but higher N resorption efficiency. Collectively, these trends indicate a more conservative resource use pattern at the highlands as compared to the lowlands. Despite this, vegetative growth per unit canopy area was higher in S. canaliculata than in S. trifurcata, and in the highland than lowland populations of S. trifurcata. Reproductive investments, measured as the reproductive mass per unit canopy area, were lower, and reproductive maturity was reached later, in S. canaliculata, but reproductive success (fruit set and seed germination) increased at the high altitude limit of each species’ range. 4. Performance did not uniformly decrease with altitude. Growth was higher in the uplands possibly because preferential biomass and meristem allocation to the vegetative function compensated for the decrease in growth season length. Similarly, the decrease in reproductive investments in the highland populations was partially compensated for, since fruit set was higher and more viable seeds (per gram invested in reproduction) were produced in the highland limit of each species. 5. This suggests that populations growing in increasingly limiting environments can partially compensate by modifications in allocation and morpho-functional traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study assesses how different phases of shoot growth underlie seasonal change in leaf and stem dry matter content (LDMC and SDMC, respectively) of 12 woody Mediterranean species. The relationship between LDMC and nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) concentrations is also explored and the seasonal vs interspecies variability of LDMC compared. • LDMC, SDMC and shoot elongation rate (SER) were measured on a monthly basis for a minimum of 12 months. Bud growth rate (BGR) and NSC concentrations were also assessed in several of the study species. • LDMC and SDMC decreased during shoot elongation in spring and increased in summer, showing a significant negative correlation with SER, but were unrelated to BGR. Half of the species analysed showed a positive relationship between LDMC and NSC. Seasonal fluctuations of LDMC within species were higher than interspecies differences, and species ranking was significantly affected by the month of sampling, except during winter months. • Seasonal changes in LDMC and SDMC are mainly related to shoot elongation phenology, and NSC sink–source relationships between old and growing organs can explain this relationship in some species. Owing to the high seasonal variability in LDMC, it is recommended that samples for comparative purposes should be collected as close to the winter as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study we present evidences of the importance of the phenological pattern on the distribution limits of the dioecious Pistacia lentiscus L. This species, though displaying a thermophilous distribution, has been proved to resist low freezing temperatures during winter. We try to explain this apparent paradox by studying the effects of an extreme cold event that occurred in December 2001 on a natural population of P. lentiscus in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula. In previous phenological studies conduced over 4 years, no spring branch damage was noticeable among population individuals. Female individuals of this species present a prolonged phenophase development which extends until early winter with the conclusion of fruit set. Therefore, we hypothesize that female plants would be more affected than male ones in terms of the following: (1) vegetative and reproductive organs survival; and (2) next-year vegetative growth and fruit production. To test this hypothesis, we selected 225 adult individuals (113 females and 112 males) in April 2002, and estimated their crown volume, percentage of frozen branches and reproductive buds, and the amount of 2001 fruits frozen. In June 2002 we evaluated, in the same individuals, the percentage of vegetative buds flushed into shoots and of reproductive buds producing infrutescences. Branch mortality was significantly higher in female plants and females with increased frost-damage displayed a higher amount of frozen fruits. The loss of reproductive buds caused a decrease in 2002 fruit production, while 2002 vegetative growth was unaffected by the degree of frost damage. These results verify most of the predictions of our hypothesis. Moreover, they suggest that the limited distribution of P. lentiscus in the cold areas of Mediterranean climate could be more determined by the long extent of the phenological activity of the crown than by its frost tolerance during winter. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Halimium atriplicifolium and Thymus vulgaris are two Mediterranean woody species, which differ in growth form and may co-occur under the same climatic constraints. Both possess distinct short (SS) and long shoots (LS). The aims of this work were: (1) to compare their phenological patterns, (2) to relate plant phenology with root depth and summer water potential, and (3) to compare the structure and phenology of SS and LS. Pre-dawn and mid-day shoot water potentials ( and ) were assessed at the beginning and at the end of the driest period. SS and LS growth, flowering and fruit setting was followed every month throughout the annual cycle. Leaf shedding was followed with litter traps and leaf demography were monitored separately in SS and LS. and exhibited a sharper drop in T. vulgaris than in H. atriplicifolium along the summer. Root depth of H. atriplicifolium was more than twice T. vulgaris. Phenophases of H. atriplicifolium occurred between spring and summer, while those of T. vulgaris concentrated in spring. The latter species shed many current-year leaves in September, probably in response to water shortage. In both species, LS growth occurred during a more rainy period than SS growth and during a warmer period in H. atriplicifolium. Leaf area and leaf mass per area were smaller for SS leaves than LS, probably due to water and carbon shortage at the time of SS growth. In conclusion, T. vulgaris suffered from more severe water stress than H. atriplicifilium due to its shallower root system and arrested phenological activity earlier in the summer. The different morphological and phenological traits of LS and SS suggest a specialisation in carbon gain along different time periods of the year. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Trait-based ecology predicts that evolution in high-resource agricultural environments should select for suites of traits that enable fast resource acquisition and rapid canopy closure. However, crop breeding targets specific agronomic attributes rather than broad trait syndromes. Breeding for specific traits, together with evolution in high-resource environments, might lead to reduced phenotypic integration, according to predictions from the ecological literature. We provide the first comprehensive test of these hypotheses, based on a trait-screening programme of 30 herbaceous crops and their wild progenitors. During crop evolution plants became larger, which enabled them to compete more effectively for light, but they had poorly integrated phenotypes. In a subset of six herbaceous crop species investigated in greater depth, competitiveness for light increased during early plant domestication, whereas diminished phenotypic integration occurred later during crop improvement. Mass-specific leaf and root traits relevant to resource-use strategies (e.g. specific leaf area or tissue density of fine roots) changed during crop evolution, but in diverse and contrasting directions and magnitudes, depending on the crop species. Reductions in phenotypic integration and overinvestment in traits involved in competition for light may affect the chances of upgrading modern herbaceous crops to face current climatic and food security challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Plant domestication altered leaf litter quality. Since litter traits relate to soil functions and organisms (i.e., litter decomposition and soil decomposer communities), in this study we explore if domestication-induced changes in litter quality have affected their decomposability, and bacterial, fungal, and nematode communities in the soil. Methods: We collected leaf litter from herbaceous crops and their wild progenitors, and measured litter chemical and physical traits. Then, we performed a litter decomposition assay on a common soil. After three months of litter incubation, we measured mass loss, nematode richness and community composition in ten crops. We also measured soil bacterial and fungal richness and community composition in six crops. Results: Domesticated litters had less carbon (C) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC), which accelerated decomposition in comparison to wild litters. Fungal richness was higher in microcosms incubated with domesticated litters, while the effects of domestication on bacterial richness differed among crops. Domestication did not affect nematode richness. The effects of domestication on bacterial and fungal community compositions differed among crops. Soils with domesticated litters tended to have nematode communities with a higher abundance of bacterial feeding nematodes, in comparison to soils fed with wild litters. Conclusion: Domestication altered decomposition at different levels. Leaf litter decomposability increased with domestication, which might alter resource inputs into the soil. Feeding soils with domesticated litters had idiosyncratic effects on soil microbes, but consistent effects on soil nematodes. Overall, domestication altered the linkages between crop residues and soil communities differently for bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Leaf gas exchange is influenced by stomatal size, density, distribution between the leaf adaxial and abaxial sides, as well as by pore dimensions. This study aims to quantify which of these traits mainly underlie genetic differences in operating stomatal conductance (gs) and addresses possible links between anatomical traits and regulation of pore width.Methods Stomatal responsiveness to desiccation, gs-related anatomical traits of each leaf side and estimated gs (based on these traits) were determined for 54 introgression lines (ILs) generated by introgressing segments of Solanum pennelli into the S. lycopersicum ‘M82’. A quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis for stomatal traits was also performed.Key Results A wide genetic variation in stomatal responsiveness to desiccation was observed, a large part of which was explained by stomatal length. Operating gs ranged over a factor of five between ILs. The pore area per stomatal area varied 8-fold among ILs (2–16 %), and was the main determinant of differences in operating gs between ILs. Operating gs was primarily positioned on the abaxial surface (60–83 %), due to higher abaxial stomatal density and, secondarily, to larger abaxial pore area. An analysis revealed 64 QTLs for stomatal traits in the ILs, most of which were in the direction of S. pennellii.Conclusions The data indicate that operating and maximum gs of non-stressed leaves maintained under stable conditions deviate considerably (by 45–91 %), because stomatal size inadequately reflects operating pore area (R2 = 0·46). Furthermore, it was found that variation between ILs in both stomatal sensitivity to desiccation and operating gs is associated with features of individual stoma. In contrast, genotypic variation in gs partitioning depends on the distribution of stomata between the leaf adaxial and abaxial epidermis. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Climate and litter quality have been identified as major drivers of litter decomposition, but our knowledge of how soil characteristics (e.g. microbial community and chemical properties) determine carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) availability derived from the decomposition of litter of different qualities is still scarce. We conducted a microcosm experiment to evaluate how soils with contrasting microbial communities and soil properties (denoted Soils A and B hereafter, where Soil B has higher bacterial and fungal abundance, fungal:bacterial ratio, and organic C than Soil A) determine the availability of soil C (carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids and phenols) and N (dissolved organic and inorganic N, microbial biomass N and available N) during the decomposition of litter of contrasting quality (C:N ratios ranging from 20 to 102). We also evaluated the relative importance of soil characteristics and litter quality as drivers of C and N inputs to the soil during this process. Overall, higher soil C and N availability after litter decomposition was found in Soil B than in Soil A. Soil characteristics had a higher positive effect on soil C and N contents than litter quality during litter decomposition. We also found that changes in N availability and organic matter quality registered after litter decomposition, linked to different soil characteristics, were able to promote dissimilarities in the potential mineralization rates. In conclusion, our study provides evidence that soil characteristics (e.g. microbial communities and chemical properties) can be more important than litter quality in determining soil C and equally important for N availability during the decomposition of leaf litter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Growth rates vary widely among plants with different strategies. For crops, evolution under predictable and high‐resource environments might favour rapid resource acquisition and growth, but whether this strategy has consistently evolved during domestication and improvement remains unclear.Here we report a comprehensive study of the evolution of growth rates based on comparisons among wild, landrace, and improved accessions of 19 herbaceous crops grown under common conditions. We also examined the underlying growth components and the influence of crop origin and history on growth evolution.Domestication and improvement did not affect growth consistently, that is growth rates increased or decreased or remained unchanged in different crops. Crops selected for fruits increased the physiological component of growth (net assimilation rate), whereas leaf and seed crops showed larger domestication effects on morphology (leaf mass ratio and specific leaf area). Moreover, climate and phylogeny contributed to explaining the effects of domestication and changes in growth.Crop‐specific responses to domestication and improvement suggest that selection for high yield has not consistently changed growth rates. The trade‐offs between morpho‐physiological traits and the distinct origins and histories of crops accounted for the variability in growth changes. These findings have far‐reaching implications for our understanding of crop performance and adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Spatial distribution of soil nutrients (soil heterogeneity) and availability have strong effects on above- and belowground plant functional traits. Although there is ample evidence on the tight links between functional traits and ecosystem functioning, the role played by soil heterogeneity and availability as modulators of such relationship is poorly known. Methods: We conducted a factorial experiment in microcosms containing grasses, legumes and non-legume forbs communities differing in composition to evaluate how soil heterogeneity and availability (50 and 100 mg N) affect the links between traits and ecosystem functioning. Community-aggregated specific leaf area (SLA) and specific root length (SRL) were measured as both relevant response traits to soil heterogeneity and availability, and significant effect traits affecting ecosystem functioning ( i.e., belowground biomass, β-glucosidase and acid phosphatase activities, and in situ N availability rate). Results: SRL was negatively and significantly associated to β-glucosidase, phosphatase and N availability rate in the high nutrient availability and heterogeneous distribution scenario. We found a significant negative relationship between SLA and availability rate of mineral-N under low nutrient availability conditions. Conclusions: Soil heterogeneity modulated the effects of both traits and nutrient availability on ecosystem functioning. Specific root length was the key trait associated with soil nutrient cycling and belowground biomass in contrasted heterogeneous soil conditions. The inclusion of soil heterogeneity into the trait-based response-effect framework may help to scale from plant communities to the ecosystem level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protection of resting buds and timing of shoot development are crucial morphological traits of plants growing in a seasonal climate. For eight species of Iberian chamaephytes with contrasting morphology and ecology, we explored the different growth stages within the morphogenetic cycle of the shoot (including the initiation, morphogenesis and maturation of vegetative and reproductive structures), the seasonality of these growth stages and their relationship with the general climate of the species distribution area. We evaluated the implications of morphogenetic cycles on the phenology, architecture and distribution of each species, and tried to identify good descriptors of these cycles for their inclusion in databases of functional plant traits. The morphology, activity and growth of meristems and the expansion of shoots were assessed periodically by dissecting buds under stereomicroscope. Plant phenology was recorded monthly for a minimum of 13 months on 15 marked plants of six out of the eight study species. All species showed naked buds, with meristems protected by leaf primordia and surrounding young leaves. We identified five stages of growth that summarize the processes of organogenesis and expansion of primordia in study species. Depending on the temporal arrangement of these stages and the type of structures subtending renewal meristems, we identified two types of morphogenetic cycles in study species: naked buds formed on brachyblasts (short branches) that extend for a relatively long time by neoformation; and naked buds on little shoot primordia that remain concealed by part of subtending leaves and extend rapidly in spring (preformed growth) sometimes followed by a period of slow expansion by neoformation. These morphogenetic cycles seem to be related to the general climate where study species grow: species with brachyblasts grow preferentially in areas with dry summers and not very cold winters, while species with shoot primordia protected by leaf structures tend to grow in areas with cold winters and not very dry summers. Some traits like the type and size of buds, or the type of morphogenetic cycle are quite easy to measure and provide important ecological information. These traits are good candidates to be included in plant trait databases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The functional traits of organisms within multispecies assemblages regulate biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning. Yet how traits should assemble to boost multiple ecosystem functions simultaneously (multifunctionality) remains poorly explored. In a multibiome litter experiment covering most of the global variation in leaf trait spectra, we showed that three dimensions of functional diversity (dispersion, rarity, and evenness) explained up to 66% of variations in multifunctionality, although the dominant species and their traits remained an important predictor. While high dispersion impeded multifunctionality, increasing the evenness among functionally dissimilar species was a key dimension to promote higher multifunctionality and to reduce the abundance of plant pathogens. Because toodissimilar species could have negative effects on ecosystems, our results highlight the need for not only diverse but also functionally even assemblages to promote multifunctionality. The effect of functionally rare species strongly shifted from positive to negative depending on their trait differences with the dominant species. Simultaneously managing the dispersion, evenness, and rarity in multispecies assemblages could be used to design assemblages aimed at maximizing multifunctionality independently of the biome, the identity of dominant species, or the range of trait values considered. Functional evenness and rarity offer promise to improve the management of terrestrial ecosystems and to limit plant disease risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Conventional agriculture promotes negative feedbacks of soil microbes on crop performance (plant soil feedbacks, PSFs) by stimulating species-specific pathogens. Crop traits, modified by domestication, also influence PSFs. Therefore, we asked if crop cultivars and their wild progenitors promote soil pathogens and mutualists differently, and thus trigger different PSFs. Methods: We studied PSFs in cultivated varieties and wild progenitors of ten crops. In a first season, we grew all genotypes separately in a common soil to obtain genotype-specific soil inocula ('trained soil') for a second season. In season two, we examined the effects of the trained soil on plant interactions with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and with root-feeding nematodes, and on plant performance. Results: Mycorrhizal colonization was lower, and nematode infection rate was higher, in plant roots growing on soils previously trained by domesticated plants. Moreover, domesticated plants showed lower mycorrhizal colonization, and higher nematode infection rates than their wild progenitors, irrespective of previous soil training. The response of plant performance to soil training was species-specific and unrelated to cultivated vs wild status. Conclusions: Soil legacies differed between cultivated varieties and their wild progenitors, suggesting an impact of domestication on the way rhizosphere organisms are recruited, on the resistance of plants to herbivores, and on their interactions with root mutualists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant diversity fosters productivity in natural ecosystems. Biodiversity effects might increase agricultural yields at no cost in additional inputs. However, the effects of diversity on crop assemblages are inconsistent, probably because crops and wild plants differ in a range of traits relevant to plant–plant interactions. We tested whether domestication has changed the potential of crop mixtures to over‐yield by comparing the performance and traits of major crop species and those of their wild progenitors under varying levels of diversity. We found stronger biodiversity effects in mixtures of wild progenitors, due to larger selection effects. Variation in selection effects was partly explained by within‐mixture differences in leaf size. Our results indicate that domestication might disrupt the ability of crops to benefit from diverse neighbourhoods via reduced trait variance. These results highlight potential limitations of current crop mixtures to over‐yield and the potential of breeding to re‐establish variance and increase mixture performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Anthropocene epoch is partly defined by anthropogenic spread of crops beyond their centres of origin. At global scales, evidence indicates that species-level taxonomic diversity of crops being cultivated on large-scale agricultural lands has increased linearly over the past 50 years. Yet environmental and socio-economic differences support expectations that temporal changes in crop diversity vary across regions. Ecological theory also suggests that changes in crop taxonomic diversity may not necessarily reflect changes in the evolutionary diversity of crops. We used data from the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations to assess changes in crop taxonomic- and phylogenetic diversity across 22 subcontinental-scale regions from 1961–2014. We document certain broad consistencies across nearly all regions: i) little change in crop diversity from 1961 through to the late 1970s; followed by ii) a 10-year period of sharp diversification through the early 1980s; followed by iii) a “levelling-off” of crop diversification beginning in the early 1990s. However, the specific onset and duration of these distinct periods differs significantly across regions and are unrelated to agricultural expansion, indicating that unique policy or environmental conditions influence the crops being grown within a given region. Additionally, while the 1970s and 1980s are defined by region-scale increases in crop diversity this period marks the increasing dominance of a small number of crop species and lineages; a trend resulting in detectable increases in the similarity of crops being grown across regions. Broad similarities in the species-level taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of crops being grown across regions, primarily at large industrial scales captured by FAO data, represent a unique feature of the Anthropocene epoch. Yet nuanced asymmetries in regional-scale trends suggest that environmental and socio-economic factors play a key role in shaping observed macro-ecological changes in the plant diversity on agricultural lands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural fields are commonly characterized by high nutrient and water availabilities, which are favourable for plant growth. Such conditions might promote the evolution of resource‐acquisitive strategies. We asked whether crop plants show root traits typical of resource‐acquisitive strategies and whether this strategy is primarily a result of their evolution under domestication or of the early selection of successful candidates for domestication.We studied a set of 30 crop species and their wild progenitors. We set up a greenhouse experiment to measure five root traits: root thickness, root tissue density, specific root length (SRL), root mass fraction (RMF) and root length ratio. In addition, we compiled data from other wild herbaceous species, growth in similar conditions to this experiment, to place the root traits of our crops in the context of wider botanical variation.Wild progenitors had thicker and less dense roots, with higher RMF and lower SRL, than other wild herbs. Thicker and less dense roots are indicative of fertile soils, which suggest that wild progenitors could have been adapted for success in agricultural conditions. Additionally, we found that domestication generally increased total plant dry mass, but none of the root traits evolved consistently towards a more resource‐acquisitive strategy after domestication across all species. Root trait values differed between progenitors and crop species for most pairs surveyed, but this occurred in diverse directions depending on crop species. Such differences were independent of phylogeny, functional group or variability in the domestication processes, such as timing of the domestication event or organ under focal artificial selection.Our comparative study revealed that the root phenotype exhibited by wild progenitors (thick roots with low density and SRL), when compared with other wild herbs, was in accordance with plants typical of fertile habitats. However, none of the root traits reacted to domestication in accordance with evolution towards faster growth strategies. Thus, the adaptation of crop root phenotypes to the fertile conditions of agricultural fields might be largely determined by early choices of wild species, rather than by further evolution under domestication. A plain language summary is available for this article. Plain Language Summary [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The woodlouse Porcellio dilatatus was used in food preference tests. • Cork-oak and a grass species litter from farms with different management was used. • Management is a strong determinant of litter consumption for the oak species. • Management effects on litter intake vary with plant species and fungal colonization. Abstract The detritivore woodlouse Porcellio dilatatus was selected to test the effects of home-field advantage and land management on the isopod feeding preferences and ingestion rates. Woodlice specimens and plant litter from two neighbouring farms were used in "cafeteria" experiments. The farms are cork-oak agro-forests with a similar litter matrix but different land-use history and current management (organic vs. conventional farms). The plant litter species selected were Quercus suber L. and Agrostis pouretti L. Leaf litter lignin, N and C concentrations, total phenolics, and fungal biomass were measured on both litter species for the assessment of litter quality. A higher preference for cork-oak litter from the conventional site was observed, both in isopods collected from the organic farm and from the conventional farm. This can be explained by the significant differences in litter quality that were found between Quercus litter types collected in the two farms. The differences in the nutritional content (lower C:N ratio for Quercus of the conventional farm) of litter from the same plant species support the assumption of a management effect on decomposition by changing plant litter quality. Yet, this pattern was not found for the other plant litter tested in this study – the grass species Agrostis pouretti. Also, despite the remarkable differences in litter traits between Quercus and Agrostis , no significant differences were found between the ingestion rates of the litter from the two plant species. Although, depending on the plant species, litter quality resulting from different management influenced P. dilatatus feeding preferences and ingestion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is key to plant nutrition, and hence is potentially key in sustainable agriculture. Fertilization and other agricultural practices reduce soil AM fungi and root colonization. Such conditions might promote the evolution of low mycorrhizal responsive crops. Therefore, we ask if and how evolution under domestication has altered AM symbioses of crops. We measured the effect of domestication on mycorrhizal responsiveness across 27 crop species and their wild progenitors. Additionally, in a subset of 14 crops, we tested if domestication effects differed under contrasting phosphorus (P) availabilities. The response of AM symbiosis to domestication varied with P availability. On average, wild progenitors benefited from the AM symbiosis irrespective of P availability, while domesticated crops only profited under P‐limited conditions. Magnitudes and directions of response were diverse among the 27 crops, and were unrelated to phylogenetic affinities or to the coordinated evolution with fine root traits. Our results indicate disruptions in the efficiency of the AM symbiosis linked to domestication. Under high fertilization, domestication could have altered the regulation of resource trafficking between AM fungi and associated plant hosts. Provided that crops are commonly raised under high fertilization, this result has important implications for sustainable agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We lack both a theoretical framework and solid empirical data to understand domestication impacts on plant chemistry. We hypothesised that domestication increased leaf N and P to support high plant production rates, but biogeographic and climate patterns further influenced the magnitude and direction of changes in specific aspects of chemistry and stoichiometry. To test these hypotheses, we used a data set of leaf C, N and P from 21 herbaceous crops and their wild progenitors. Domestication increased leaf N and/or P for 57% of the crops. Moreover, the latitude of the domestication sites (negatively related to temperature) modulated the domestication effects on P (+), C (−), N : P (−) and C : P (−) ratios. Further results from a litter decomposition assay showed that domestication effects on litter chemistry affected the availability of soil N and P. Our findings draw attention to evolutionary effects of domestication legacies on plant and soil stoichiometry and related ecosystem services (e.g. plant yield and soil fertility). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]