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Although men and women both experience eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, there are differences in the way their eating disorder may present. Body dissatisfaction or body dysmorphia in men may be more related to a drive for muscularity as opposed to thinness. Muscle dysmorphic disorder (also known as muscle dysmorphia) is a form or subtype of body dysmorphia that is characterised by an extreme desire for muscularity and a preoccupation with the idea that one's physique is too small or not sufficiently muscular. It is more common in men than women and is associated with body image distortion, excessive exercise routines, muscularity-orientated disordered eating and the use of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs such as anabolic androgenic steroids. Risk factors for muscle dysmorphic disorder include social pressure (including to conform to gender stereotypes) and low self-esteem. The condition has negative psychological, physical, relational and financial effects. Nurses can play a role in health promotion as well as in the assessment, care and referral of men with muscle dysmorphic disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Muscle dysmorphic disorder (MDD) is a mental disorder characterized by men's exaggerated self-perception as insufficiently muscular and lean and pathological preoccupation with achieving a muscular body. MDD has been recognized as a risk factor associated with negative mental health outcomes in men. However, previous studies did not sufficiently explore the link between MDD and masculine depression. Therefore, the present study examines the mediating role of social interaction anxiety and the moderating role of restrictive emotionality in the relationship between MDD and masculine depression. Structured questionnaires were distributed online among 849 Israeli men. The moderated mediation analysis indicated that a positive association between MDD and masculine depression was moderated by restrictive emotionality and partially mediated by social interaction anxiety. These findings have profound meaning in terms of the psychosocial aspects of men's lives, underlining the risk factors inherent in the association between men's dissatisfaction with their body and their mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Representing the pathological extreme pursuit of muscularity, muscle dysmorphia (MD) is characterized by a pervasive belief or fear around insufficient muscularity and an elevated drive for muscularity. Despite evidence of heightened body image-related concerns among gender minority populations, little is known about the degree of MD symptoms among gender minorities, particularly based on Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) scores. The objective of this study was to assess community norms of the MDDI in gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women. Method: Data from participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing study of health outcomes in sexual and gender minority people, were examined. We calculated means, standard deviations, and percentiles for the MDDI total and subscale scores among gender-expansive people (i.e., those who identify outside of the binary system of man or woman; n = 1023), transgender men (n = 326), and transgender women (n = 177). The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess group differences and post hoc Dunn's tests were used to examine pairwise differences. Results: Transgender men reported the highest mean MDDI total score (30.5 ± 7.5), followed by gender-expansive people (27.2 ± 6.7), then transgender women (24.6 ± 5.7). The differences in total MDDI score were driven largely by the Drive for Size subscale and, to a lesser extent, the Functional Impairment subscale. There were no significant differences in the Appearance Intolerance subscale among the three groups. Conclusions: Transgender men reported higher Drive for Size, Functional Impairment, and Total MDDI scores compared to gender-expansive people and transgender women. These norms provide insights into the experience of MD symptoms among gender minorities and can aid researchers and clinicians in the interpretation of MDDI scores among gender minority populations. Plain English summary: Transgender people have a gender identity or expression that differs from what is typically associated with the sex assigned to them at birth. Gender-expansive refers to gender identities that do not fit within the binary (woman/man) gender system. We asked gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women in The PRIDE Study to fill out a widely used survey about muscle dysmorphia, a condition in which a person worries they are not muscular enough. The results showed that transgender men had the highest muscle dysmorphia symptoms, followed by gender-expansive people, then transgender women. These findings can help clinicians and researchers in interpreting a survey assessing muscle dysmorphia in gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women. Characterizing muscle dysmorphia symptoms in these populations is an important step to improve mental wellness among transgender and gender-expansive people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Representing the pathological extreme pursuit of muscularity, muscle dysmorphia (MD) is characterized by a pervasive belief or fear around insufficient muscularity and an elevated drive for muscularity. Despite evidence of elevated body image-related concerns among sexual minority populations, little is known about the degree of muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptoms among sexual minorities, particularly based on Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) scores. The objective of this study was to examine the nature and severity of MD symptoms in cisgender sexual minority men and women and provide community norms of the MDDI for these populations. Methods: Data from participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing study of health outcomes in sexual and gender minority people from the United States, were examined. Participants included cisgender gay men (N = 1090), cisgender bisexual plus (bisexual, pansexual, and/or polysexual) men (N = 100), cisgender lesbian women (N = 563), and cisgender bisexual plus women (N = 507). We calculated means, standard deviations (SD), and percentiles for the MDDI total and subscale scores for cisgender sexual minority men and women. We compared MDDI scores by sexual orientation using linear regression models, both unadjusted and adjusted for sociodemographics. Results: Overall, the sample was 85.2% White, 3.0% Asian or Pacific Islander, 2.0% Black, 0.5% Native American, 3.9% multiracial, and 6.6% Hispanic/Latino/a. The mean age was 38.6 (SD = 14.3) and 69.4% had a college degree or higher. Means (SD) for the MDDI total score were 27.4 (7.7) for cisgender gay men, 26.4 (6.4) for cisgender bisexual plus men, 24.3 (6.1) for cisgender lesbian women, and 24.6 (5.5) for cisgender bisexual plus women. There were no significant differences in MDDI scores between cisgender gay and bisexual plus men, or between cisgender lesbian women and bisexual plus women in unadjusted or adjusted models. Conclusions: These normative data provide insights into the experience of MD symptoms among cisgender sexual minority men and women and can aid researchers and clinicians in the evaluation of MD symptoms and interpretation of MDDI scores in sexual minority populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Excessive bodybuilding as a pathological syndrome has been classified based on two different theories: bodybuilding as dependency or as muscle dysmorphic disorder (MDD). This study is a first attempt to find psychophysiological data supporting one of these classifications. Methods: Twenty-four participants (bodybuilders vs healthy controls) were presented with pictures of bodies, exercise equipment or general reward stimuli in a control or experimental condition, and were measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Higher activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) while watching bodies and training equipment in the experimental condition (muscular bodies and bodybuilding-typical equipment) would be an indicator for the addiction theory. Higher activation in motion-related areas would be an indicator for the MDD theory. Results: We found no task-related differences between the groups in the DLPFC and OFC, but a significantly higher activation in bodybuilders in the primary somatosensory cortex (PSC) and left-hemispheric supplementary motor area (SMA) while watching body pictures (across conditions) as compared to the control group. Conclusions: These neurophysiological results could be interpreted as a first evidence for the MDD theory of excessive bodybuilding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasing public and empirical focus on male body image indicates that muscularity is a preeminent concern among boys and men. For some, these concerns develop into a complex and disabling psychiatric disorder termed muscle dysmorphia (MD), the hallmark of which is an intense preoccupation regarding one's (subjectively) insufficient muscularity. Treatment of MD is critical; however, evidence to inform treatment approaches is sorely lacking. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we provide an overview of the clinical features of MD, drawing particular attention to the preoccupation, functional impairment and psychiatric comorbidity associated with the disorder. Second, we discuss and recommend potential treatment directions for MD, including techniques that have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of related disorders, namely, body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders (and anorexia nervosa in particular). Psychotherapeutic techniques, including cognitive restructuring of deleterious perfectionistic and egosyntonic beliefs, and dialectical behavioral techniques to improve the repertoire of emotion regulation skills available to afflicted individuals, are discussed, in addition to psychopharmacological approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Muscle dysmorphia has been identified both in men and women, causing changes in the perception of self image and sociocultural losses and in the health and well being. In this sense, the purpose of this study was to examine the sociocultural and psychological aspects and the use of ergogenic resources related to muscle dysmorphia as well to identify the risks promoted by the disorder. The participants included 20 individuals enrolled by the Internet. We used a questionnaire to gather data and document analysis to interpret the responses. The results showed that concerns about body image generate insecurity, low self-esteem and feelings of inferiority, which would be solved if people had beautiful and strong bodies. Muscle dysmorphia can increase the risk of using anabolic steroids and indiscriminate use of dietary supplements. We conclude that muscle dysmorphia causes suffering, psychological and sociocultural damage, and thus compromises the health of people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]