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Human disturbance directly affects animal populations and communities, but indirect effects of disturbance on species behaviors are less well understood. For instance, disturbance may alter predator activity and cause knock‐on effects to predator‐sensitive foraging in prey. Camera traps provide an emerging opportunity to investigate such disturbance‐mediated impacts to animal behaviors across multiple scales. We used camera trap data to test predictions about predator‐sensitive behavior in three ungulate species (caribou Rangifer tarandus; white‐tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus; moose, Alces alces) across two western boreal forest landscapes varying in disturbance. We quantified behavior as the number of camera trap photos per detection event and tested its relationship to inferred human‐mediated predation risk between a landscape with greater industrial disturbance and predator activity and a "control" landscape with lower human and predator activity. We also assessed the finer‐scale influence on behavior of variation in predation risk (relative to habitat variation) across camera sites within the more disturbed landscape. We predicted that animals in areas with greater predation risk (e.g., more wolf activity, less cover) would travel faster past cameras and generate fewer photos per detection event, while animals in areas with less predation risk would linger (rest, forage, investigate), generating more photos per event. Our predictions were supported at the landscape‐level, as caribou and moose had more photos per event in the control landscape where disturbance‐mediated predation risk was lower. At a finer‐scale within the disturbed landscape, no prey species showed a significant behavioral response to wolf activity, but the number of photos per event decreased for white‐tailed deer with increasing line of sight (m) along seismic lines (i.e., decreasing visual cover), consistent with a predator‐sensitive response. The presence of juveniles was associated with shorter behavioral events for caribou and moose, suggesting greater predator sensitivity for females with calves. Only moose demonstrated a positive behavioral association (i.e., longer events) with vegetation productivity (16‐day NDVI), suggesting that for other species bottom‐up influences of forage availability were generally weaker than top‐down influences from predation risk. Behavioral insights can be gleaned from camera trap surveys and provide complementary information about animal responses to predation risk, and thus about the indirect impacts of human disturbances on predator–prey interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Tanzania, community‐based natural resource management (CBNRM) of wildlife occurs through wildlife management areas (WMAs). The WMAs consist of multiple villages designating land and managing it for wildlife conservation in return for a portion of subsequent tourism revenues. The ecological success or failure of WMAs for wildlife conservation is rarely quantified but is important for evaluating the efficacy of specific projects and the general concept of CBNRM. I used 3 analyses to evaluate the ecological effectiveness of wildlife conservation actions in the Burunge WMA. I compared wildlife and livestock densities inside and outside a WMA using 1 year of distance sampling data and compared wild and domestic ungulate densities before and after the implementation of management changes that increased wildlife protections within a subsection of Burunge WMA using 6 years of distance sampling surveys. I also compared giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) survival and population growth rate before and after the implementation of management changes that increased wildlife protections in a subsection of Burunge WMA using 5 years of photographic capture‐recapture data. I found greater densities of wildlife and lower densities of livestock inside the WMA compared with outside. After the management changes, I documented significantly higher densities of several wild ungulate species and lower densities of domestic ungulates in the WMA. I found giraffe survival and population growth rate both increased in response to the management changes. Results indicated the WMA is effectively providing habitat and protection for wild ungulates while generally excluding domestic livestock. Ungulate densities, and giraffe survival and population growth rate over time indicated the management changes enacted in 2014–2015 resulted in positive effects for wild ungulates. These combined results indicate the ecological effectiveness of Burunge WMA and provide evidence that CBNRM can have positive effects on wildlife populations, particularly when support to grassroots law enforcement is provided. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. In Tanzania, community‐based natural resource management of wildlife occurs through wildlife management areas. This case study of Burunge Wildlife Management Area shows it is effectively protecting habitat and wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat selection is a complex hierarchical process and in ungulates typically varies at broad spatial and temporal scales and among individuals. Recent advancements in the ability of global positioning system (GPS)‐collars to collect activity data provide opportunities to understand underlying mechanisms or trade‐offs responsible for fine‐scale variation in habitat selection. Based on data from 64 female black‐tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) fitted with GPS‐collars in northern California, USA, between 2004 and 2013, we first investigated habitat selection at the home range scale. We then used data from a subset of 27 individuals to determine if habitat selection within home ranges was influenced by activity states (active or inactive). Habitat selection by black‐tailed deer varied between summer and winter and was mostly explained by differences in elevation, terrain, and vegetation. Within their home ranges, black‐tailed deer showed fine‐scale selection for habitats that varied with activity states. In summer, selection for edge density and forest types varied across activity states highlighting important fine‐scale selection patterns. Activity state also affected our conclusions about the selection of habitats including slope, canopy cover, and forest types by black‐tailed deer in winter. During both seasons, deer selected for apparently secure habitat when inactive, likely to minimize risk of predation. These results highlight the importance of considering activity states when evaluating habitat selection from animal location data. This is particularly important in multi‐use landscapes such as national forests where habitat needs of ungulates are important considerations in management decisions, including timber harvest. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. Using data from global positioning system collars equipped with activity sensors, we demonstrate that female black‐tailed deer selected different habitat characteristics when active versus inactive. These results improved our understanding of the importance of lesser used but activity‐specific habitats and should be included in land management decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective wildlife management and conservation require reliable assessments of animal abundance. However, no ungulate monitoring methods is entirely satisfying in terms of cost-effectiveness and accuracy. A new method combining unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) and thermal infrared (TIR) imaging may have great potential as a tool for ungulate surveys. Drones enable safe operations at low flying altitudes, and at night - a time that often offers the optimal conditions for wildlife monitoring. To assess the feasibility of the proposed method we used fixed-wing drones with TIR cameras to conduct test surveys in Drawieński National Park, Poland. We demonstrated that ungulate thermal signatures are visible both in leafless deciduous and in pine-dominated coniferous forests. Survey timing highly influenced the results - the best quality thermal images were obtained at sunrise, late evening, and at night. Our preliminary results indicated that thermal surveys from drones are a promising method for ungulate enumeration. We demonstrated that with ground resolution of ~10 cm it is possible to visibly distinguish large species (i.e. red deer) and achieve a good level of area coverage. The main challenges of the method are difficulties in species identification due to relatively low resolution of TIR cameras, regulations limiting drone operations to visual line of sight, and high dependence on weather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: We review the state of African ungulate taxonomy over the last 120 years, with an emphasis on the introduction of the polytypic species concept and the discipline's general neglect since the middle of the 20th century. We single out negative consequences of ‘orthodox’ taxonomy, highlighting numerous cases of neglect of threatened lineages, unsound translocations that led to lineage introgression, and cases of maladaptation to local conditions including parasitic infections. Additionally, several captive breeding programmes have been hampered by chromosome rearrangements caused by involuntary lineage mixing. We advocate that specimen‐based taxonomy should regain its keystone role in mammal research and conservation biology, with its scientific values augmented with genomic evidence. While integration with molecular biology, ecology and behaviour is needed for a full understanding of ungulate alpha diversity, we stress that morphological diversity has been neglected despite its tremendous practical importance for some groups of ‘utilizers’ such as trophy hunters, wildlife tourists and conservationists. We conclude that there is no evidence that purported ‘taxonomic inflation’ has adverse effects on ungulate conservation: rather, it is taxonomic inertia that has such adverse effects. We stress that sound science, founded on robust taxonomy, should underpin effective sustainable management (hunting, ranching, captive breeding and reintroduction programmes) of this unique African natural resource. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predation, habitat, hunting, and environmental conditions have all been implicated as regulatory mechanisms in ungulate populations. The low-density equilibrium hypothesis predicts that in low-density populations, predators regulate their prey and that the population will not escape unless predation pressure is eased. We evaluated survival of adult and juvenile moose ( Alces alces ) in north-central Alaska to determine whether or not the population supported the hypothesis. We instrumented adult male and female moose with radiocollars and used aerial observations to track parturition and subsequent survival of juvenile moose. Generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to assess survival. Adult annual survival rates were high (∼89%), but may be negatively influenced by winter conditions. Migratory status did not affect moose survivorship or productivity. Approximately 60% of the calf crop died before 5 months of age. Productivity was significantly lower in the northern section of the study area where there is less high-quality habitat, suggesting that, even in this low-density population, nutrition could be a limiting factor. It appears that predation on young calves, winter weather, and nutritional constraints may be interacting to limit this population. Latent traits, such as overproduction of calves and migratory behavior, which do not currently enhance fitness, may persist within this population so that individuals with these traits can reap benefits when environmental conditions change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many processes in wild populations are difficult to study. Genetic data, often non-invasively collected, may provide a solution to these difficulties and are increasingly used to study behavioral, demographic, ecological, and evolutionary processes. Moreover, the improved sensitivity of genetic methods now allows analyses of trace amounts of DNA left by animals in their environment (e.g., saliva, urine, epithelial cells). Environmental DNA (eDNA) thus offers new opportunities to study a range of historic and contemporary questions. Here, we present a species and sex diagnostic kit for studying browsing in a multispecies temperate ungulate assemblage. Using mitochondrial sequences deposited in Genbank, we developed four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for identifying four temperate ungulate species. We also sequenced portions of the Amelogenin gene on the X- and Y-chromosomes and developed six SNPs (three on the X-chromosome and three on the Y-chromosome) for sex determination. We tested the SNP assays on high and low quality/quantity DNA samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To manage potentially contrasting objectives such as ungulate conservation, habitat conservation, and forest harvesting, information about browsing patterns on vegetative regeneration of woody plants is needed. Here, we study browsing patterns of Corsican red deer on vegetative regeneration of coppices in a Mediterranean Holm oak forest. Within the forest management plan, the proportion of browsed shoots per plant was yearly monitored. Regression models were applied to estimate browsing probability of plants (BrY) and of shoots (Br), and evaluate factors though to affect red deer feeding behaviour, such as plant identity (Sp), plant height (H), years from coppicing (Y fC), density of palatable (Dp) and unpalatable plants (Du), and presence of wild boars (WB). Browsing rates were unrelated to relative abundance of species (RA), and strongly affected by Sp, suggesting high feeding selectivity of Corsican red deer. High browsing rates were observed on Quercus ilex (RA=0.26; BrY=0.81, Br=0.41), and Phillyrea latifolia (RA=0.07; BrY=0.89, Br=0.63). Early successional shrubs such as Arbutus unedo (RA=0.39; BrY=0.04, Br=0.01), Erica arborea (RA=0.14; BrY=0.06, Br=0.01), Cistus monspeliensis (RA=0.08; BrY=0.05, Br=0.01), and Cistus salvifolius (RA=0.05; BrY=0.10, Br=0.04), were very seldom browsed. Browsing probability of palatable species decreased withY fC andH, andwas affected byDp and Du. WB did not seem to affect browsing probability. The effect of plant density on browsing was explained in terms of relative palatability and associational resistance, which need to be considered in forest management plans of mixed forests under browsing pressure. To improve the biological understanding underlying forest management decisions, we recommend managers monitoring browsing impact on woody plants through space and time within plans of sustainable harvesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The life-history theories of aging predict lifetime tradeoffs between early reproductive allocation and late-life survival, reproduction, or both components of fitness. Recent studies in wild populations have found evidence for these early-late life trade-offs, but rarely have they been found across multiple traits while exploring the additional effects of variation in environmental conditions and individual quality. Benefiting from longitudinal data on adult female mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), we investigated the influence of age at first reproduction (AFR) and early reproductive success (ERS) on longevity, late reproductive success, and senescence rates while accounting for the influence of natal environmental conditions and individual quality. Contrary to predictions, we did not find evidence for early-late life trade-offs. Instead, an earlier AFR and a greater ERS had positive but weak direct effects on late reproductive success. Natal population density, however, was the strongest determinant of all life-history traits, having a direct negative effect on female longevity, late reproductive success, AFR, and ERS. Although natal density reduced the probability of annual reproduction and annual survival during adulthood, higher allocation to reproduction in early life and poorer natal conditions dida not lead to accelerated rates of senescence during adulthood. The results of this investigation provide an integrated picture of early-late life tradeoffs, underscoring the importance of accounting for environmental conditions because of their potentially strong implications for population dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the ecology of large ungulates in southern Africa requires accurate and precise measures of population size. Recovery or exploitation of ungulates in reserves is currently instigated when population size changes exceed 15% per annum, but monitoring is usually undertaken with single counts from helicopters, for which precision and the power to detect change are untested. In essence, power being the strength of a monitoring result in showing change over time. Retrospective power analysis is a useful technique to investigate the variability of single-count aerial surveys. Using replicated helicopter-based counts of southern African ungulates and post hoc analysis, we investigated the power of currently used single-count surveys across five common ungulate species and 11 wildlife reserves. We expected high variability in count data and set α = 0.1 and 0.2 ( α being the type I error rate), and asked two questions: 'How much does power vary in replicated aerial counts of southern African wildlife across reserves and species?' and 'Can current single-count aerial surveys detect population changes in response to management actions or are the statistical errors intractable?' Single counts were mostly unreliable; only one of 42 had sufficient power to detect meaningful changes in population size or their trends at α = 0.1, and only three had sufficient power at α = 0.2. Power varied widely according to species (e.g. warthog, median power at α = 0.1; 0.12-0.37: blue wildebeest, median power at α = 0.1; 0.23-0.74), and, within species, between replicates and reserves. Our retrospective calculations demonstrated insensitivity and ineffectiveness in most currently applied single counts from helicopters. Consequently, it is impossible to interpret the effects of ungulate conservation actions on many southern African reserves. Retrospective power analyses enables determination of which previous aerial surveys were useful for population assessment and adaptive management, and which should be discarded. We recommend that prospective power analyses are undertaken to determine future helicopter survey sample size and replication requirements, especially in small reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across the Congo Basin, human hunting pressure poses the biggest threat to small- and medium-bodied forest ungulates (genus Philantomba and Cephalophus, commonly known as duikers). The exploitation of these species has cascading effects on larger ecosystem processes, as well as on human subsistence practices. This study compares encounter rates and estimated population densities of duiker species, specifically Philantomba monticola (blue duiker) in the Dzanga-Sangha Protected Areas ( APDS), Central African Republic ( CAR). Data were collected using direct observations of individual animals during diurnal (135 km) and nocturnal (150 km) transects in the APDS, with abundance estimates produced using DISTANCE software. Transect data demonstrate that within hunted forests similar to APDS, nocturnal rather than diurnal transects yield more individual observations of ungulates. Despite hunting pressure in the region, estimates presented for APDS suggest some of the highest density estimates reported for blue duikers in western and central Africa (58.6 blue duikers per km2). This study directly contributes current regional data on the status of duiker populations at APDS and in the larger Sangha Trinational Landscape ( TNS, UNESCO). More broadly, we highlight the potential importance of nocturnal transect data to the development of adaptive management regimes in hunted forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) is native to South America and is endangered in Argentina. In Buenos Aires province, Argentina, the last population of pampas deer is harbored in the Bahía Samborombón Wildlife Refuge (BSWR), which includes protected areas and numerous cattle ranches. This population has been declining and changing progressively in its distribution since 1985, and negative interactions between pampas deer and introduced ungulates (livestock and feral pigs) have been proposed among the main causes of its decline. We examined the abundance, distribution, and interactions among pampas deer, cattle, and feral pigs at site and landscape scales in the BSWR. At the site scale, coexistence between pampas deer and cattle at the same paddock was only possible at moderate stocking rates (0.2-0.4 AU/ha), and no deer were recorded at paddocks when stocking rates were above 0.6 AU/ha. Pampas deer and feral pigs co-occurred more frequently, but deer switched their behavior and increased levels of surveillance in response to proximity of feral pigs. At the landscape scale, a clear spatial segregation and differential distribution was detected among pampas deer, cattle, and feral pigs along the BSWR. Our results suggest that the current distribution of pampas deer at the study area is a consequence of avoiding contact with both livestock and feral pigs at the site scale. Thus, negative interactions recorded between pampas deer and introduced ungulates at the site scale were expressed at the landscape scale. Both in situ and ex situ conservation efforts are urgently needed to conserve pampas deer. El venado de las pampas (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) es un cérvido nativo de Sudamérica que se encuentra seriamente amenazado en Argentina. En la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina, el último núcleo poblacional de la especie se encuentra en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Bahía Samborombón (RVSBS), que alberga áreas protegidas y, mayormente, campos ganaderos. Dicha población ha estado declinando y cambiando progresivamente su distribución desde 1985 y, al respecto, se ha propuesto a las interacciones negativas entre el venado y especies introducidas como el ganado vacuno y los chanchos cimarrones entre las principales causas de su declinación. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la abundancia, la distribución y las interacciones del venado de las pampas con el ganado vacuno y los chanchos cimarrones, simultáneamente, a escala de sitio y de paisaje en el RVSBS. A escala de sitio, la coexistencia entre venados de las pampas y ganado vacuno en el mismo potrero sólo fue posible a cargas ganaderas moderadas (0.2-0.4 E.V./ha), y no se registraron venados cuando la carga fue mayor a 0.6 E.V./ha. Por otro lado, los venados y los chanchos cimarrones ocurrieron simultáneamente más frecuentemente, pero ante la proximidad de éste, el venado manifestó alteraciones en su conducta e incrementó sus niveles de vigilancia. A escala de paisaje, los relevamientos aéreos permitieron detectar una segregación espacial y una distribución diferencial de vacunos, chanchos y venados a lo largo del RVSBS. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la distribución actual del venado de las pampas en el área de estudio es consecuencia de evitar el contacto tanto con el ganado vacuno como con los chanchos cimarrones a escala de sitio. Por lo tanto, las interacciones negativas registradas entre venados de las pampas y ungulados introducidos a escala de sitio se vieron expresadas a escala de paisaje. Nuestros resultados tienen implicancias directas para el manejo y la conservación del venado de las pampas, cuya población viene declinando desde 1985. Ante esta situación, es necesario implementar de manera urgente estrategias de conservación in situ y ex situ para conservar al venado de las pampas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of marked free-ranging ungulates have provided major contributions to ecology, evolution, and conservation. We focus on research areas where these studies have been particularly important: the role of individual differences in population dynamics, temporal changes in factors limiting populations, variation in reproductive success, quantitative genetics in the wild, population management, and conservation. We underline some strengths and limitations of these studies and call for more research on populations subjected to hunting, coexisting with large predators, and living in tropical or arid environments. Long-term research on ungulates requires long-term commitment, funding, access to study areas where animals can be monitored, and, usually, support from government agencies. Logistical difficulties limit the number of these important studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life-history traits in temperate ungulates are highly seasonal, with events corresponding to the seasonal availability of resources. An important example is birth date, with later-born individuals typically having reduced survival compared with those born earlier in the season. Ungulates, especially those whose offspring are at their mother's heel soon after birth, are typically born in a narrow window of time in late May-early June. In Newfoundland, mean birth date in caribou ( Rangifer tarandus (L., 1758); n = 1175) was 31 May. Here, we document a sighting of a caribou calf born ∼25 July on Fogo Island, Newfoundland (∼55 days after the mean birth date). Calving date was estimated using movement rate of the mother and validated by visual observations of the mother. We discuss the implications of this finding as it pertains to caribou ecology, and suggest that studies of ungulate birth date should ensure that observations are continued well past the initial birth pulse to guarantee that a complete picture of ungulate breeding ecology be maintained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although being an important conservation tool in Africa, trophy hunting is known to influence risk perception in wildlife species, thus affecting the behaviour and fitness of most targeted species. We studied the effects of trophy hunting on the flight behaviour of impala ( Aepyceros melampus), greater kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable ( Hippotragus niger) in two closed ecosystems, Cawston Ranch (hunting area) and Stanley and Livingstone Private Game Reserve (tourist area), western Zimbabwe. Using standardized field procedures, we assessed the flight behavioural responses of the three species in two seasons: non-hunting (December-March) and hunting (April-November) between March 2013 and November 2014. We tested the effect of habitat, group size, sex, season, start distance and alert distance on flight initiation distance using linear mixed models. Habitat, group size sex and alert distance did not have any effect on flight initiation distance for the three species. The three species were more alert and displayed longer flight initiation distances in the hunting area compared with the tourist area. Flight initiation distances for the three species were higher during the hunting season for the hunting area and low during the non-hunting season. Flight distances of the three species did not differ between the hunting area and the tourist area. We concluded that trophy hunting increased perceived risk of wild ungulates in closed hunting areas, whereas ungulates in non-hunting areas are less responsive and somehow habituated to human presence. Management plans should include minimum approach distances by tourists as well as establishing seasonal restrictions on special zones to promote species viability. Research aimed at integrating behavioural responses with physiological aspects of target species should be promoted to ensure that managers are able to deal with the behavioural trade-offs of trophy hunting at local and regional scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crocanthemum greenei (B.L.Rob.) Sorrie (Cistaceae), a perennial sub-shrub, was measured as part of a demographic monitoring effort on Santa Catalina Island, California, USA (hereafter, Catalina). Introduced ungulate browsers remain present on Catalina. Consequently, many palatable plant taxa on the island are subject to and putatively limited by top-down browsing forces. Historically, introduced ungulates have also been present on each island throughout the range of C. greenei. Habitat conservation work, resulting in the construction of ungulate exclosures on Catalina, has now allowed us to measure individuals in their mature, non-browsed form. The published value for C. greenei stem (height) is usually 15-30 cm. While the original description hints at a greater potential size, recent descriptions appear to be influenced by observations made during the decades when plants would have been impacted by introduced ungulate herbivores. Here we present stem measurements of 81 adult individuals, with a median of 49 cm and an interquartile range of 42-56 cm. These measurements suggest an expanded stem (height) range of 15-60 cm better describes the taxon and shed light on the historical impacts of invasive ungulates across the islands and those continuing on Catalina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ungulates that are adapted to cold climates may use bed sites as thermal refuges during summer. At the southern edge of their distribution moose Alces alces often encounter ambient summer temperatures above their upper critical temperature. Summer is also when moose increase food consumption and metabolism, which increases heat generation that must typically be lost at bed sites. To determine if moose use bed sites that enable heat loss when temperatures are hot, we randomly sampled bed sites of moose from across the entire range of ambient summer temperatures. We calculated kernel density estimates for each day and night using GPS locations collected each 20 min for an entire summer to identify bed sites. Kernel density estimates identified bed sites accurately. During the day, moose bedded under lowland forest canopies where substrates had high water content. At night, bed sites were in openings which are associated with greater browse availability and net heat loss. Lowland forests interspersed with openings should help moose to maintain thermal balance during summer. Because thermoregulatory behavior is linked with fitness, thermal refuges should be especially important in areas where moose population declines have been positively correlated with warming temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to determine the frequencies of interspecific association formation and species preferences among five ungulates [bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), Menelik's bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) and mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni)] in the northern Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Data were collected in three forest patches and in open grassland using total count technique in 2009 and 2011. The total number of ungulate groups found in interspecific associations was 444, comprising 26.8% of the total 1657 groups recorded. For the five study species, the relative frequency with which a given species occurred in interspecific association deviated significantly from the expected mean relative frequency (i.e. 26.8%). Each study species showed preferences to form interspecific associations with one or two other species. Interspecific association formation increased mean group sizes for bohor reedbuck and mountain nyala. And most of the species had greater overall mean group sizes in the open habitat compared to forest habitat. In general, the association pattern reported here could be attributed to antipredator response and/or mutual grazing facilitation, which might be beneficial to one or all of the species involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The roan antelope H ippotragus equinus, Africa's second largest antelope species, is widely distributed throughout Africa. Many populations are isolated, occur at low densities, and are declining. The species' interactions with and adaptations to the diverse environmental conditions throughout its geographic range remain largely unknown. Most studies have taken place in southern Africa, near the range limit for the species; few studies have been conducted on the historically large Central and West African populations., We reviewed available published and accessible unpublished data related to the ecology of roan antelope. We aim to: 1) review available taxonomic, abundance, distribution, and population trend data; 2) describe the threats faced by the roan antelope, and establish whether sufficient data exist to describe its ecological requirements; and 3) highlight the relevance of conserving this species throughout Africa and suggest where research on survival requirements should be focussed., Roan antelope populations throughout Africa are declining due to natural and anthropogenic threats. Methodological irregularities result in uncertainty and non-comparable population data between studies. Large gaps exist in our knowledge of roan antelope diet and regional movements. Information on the population genetics of roan antelope is needed in order to assess the connectedness of different populations., Data deficiency severely impedes our ability to employ powerful analytical methods aimed at understanding and predicting population persistence and viability, and to model envisaged threats from impending climate change. A unified approach to fundamental ecological research is required to inform the conservation and management of large rare mammalian ungulates such as the roan antelope in Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide vicugna numbers are slowly recovering after the implementation of conservation measures in several areas of the Andean Puna. Amongst some communities, vicugnas are sustainably managed through captures, shearing, and release schemes. In this study, we explored habitat use and interactions between vicugnas and domestic livestock in Jujuy, Northwest Argentina. We measured the habitat selectivity of vicugna by evaluating the relationship between the availability and its use of vegetation. We estimated the extent and overlap of habitat niche, as well as the foraging effort of vicugnas on the basis of their individual behaviour. Vicugnas and domestic livestock were highly selective in their use of land. They also had similar foraging preferences, grazing rather on the mixed steppe grasses and grasslands that offered greater grass cover. The distribution of vicugna in relation to domestic animals differed according to species and density. With mean density of llamas, vicugnas showed mixed herds but with any other livestock and greater densities, they were segregated. In mixed grazing, when vicugnas engaged with llamas, no behavioural interaction or competition was observed. The presence of herders with dogs was the main stress factor for vicugnas. Here we discuss the importance of a multi-specific management approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population dynamics and effects of large ungulate disturbances on Winkler cactus ( Pediocactus winkleri K.D. Heil) were documented annually over a 20-year time span at one plot within Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. This cactus species was federally listed as threatened in 1998. The study began in 1995 to gain a better understanding of life history aspects and threats to this species. Data were collected annually in early spring and included diameter, condition, reproductive structures, mortality, recruitment, and disturbance by large ungulates. We used odds ratio and probability model analyses to determine effects of large ungulate trampling and weather on these cacti. During the study, plot population declined by 18%, with trampling of cactus, low precipitation, and cold spring temperatures implicated as causal factors. Precipitation and temperature affected flowering, mortality, and recruitment. Large ungulate disturbances increased mortality and reduced the probability of flowering. These results suggest that large ungulate disturbances and recent climate regimes have had an adverse impact on long-term persistence of this cactus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Selection of parturition sites by wild ungulates involves trade-offs between maximizing forage quality or availability and minimizing predation risk. Previous studies documenting critical lambing habitat of bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis) have relied on visual observations that can lead to biased results. We used vaginal implant transmitters (VITs) and intensely monitored radiocollared females to 1) accurately identify parturition events for bighorn sheep; 2) quantify habitat selection for parturition events at the macro- and microhabitat scales; and 3) quantify habitat selection of neonate lamb (≤24 hr old) bed sites at the microhabitat scale in the Black Hills, South Dakota. From 2010-2012, we documented 43 parturition and 47 lamb bed sites for microhabitat analysis, and incorporated an additional 28 capture sites where lambs were ≤24 hours old for macrohabitat analysis ( n = 71). We found females equipped with VITs increased our ability to identify parturition events 2-fold (67%) over intensely monitored radiocollared ewes (33%), and 82% (58/71) of parturition events occurred outside of previously delineated lambing habitat. Results of model-averaged generalized estimating equations revealed bighorn sheep females selected for relatively flat spaces within rugged terrain, areas that were close to perennial streams, south and west facing slopes, and against anthropogenic disturbance. At the microhabitat scale, neonate lambs tended to select for greater cover in the uphill and downhill directions, and against north facing slopes. We hypothesize the patterns of selection we observed were related to predator-avoidance strategies and increased solar radiation. We recommend managers reassess designated critical lambing habitat previously defined by visual observations, or consider more broad-scale temporal closures to protect parturient habitat. © 2015 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been hypothesized that climate warming will allow southern species to advance north and invade northern ecosystems. We review the changes in the Swedish mammal and bird community in boreal forest and alpine tundra since the nineteenth century, as well as suggested drivers of change. Observed changes include (1) range expansion and increased abundance in southern birds, ungulates, and carnivores; (2) range contraction and decline in northern birds and carnivores; and (3) abundance decline or periodically disrupted dynamics in cyclic populations of small and medium-sized mammals and birds. The first warm spell, 1930-1960, stands out as a period of substantial faunal change. However, in addition to climate warming, suggested drivers of change include land use and other anthropogenic factors. We hypothesize all these drivers interacted, primarily favoring southern generalists. Future research should aim to distinguish between effects of climate and land-use change in boreal and tundra ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Imaging spectroscopy enables measurement of vegetation optical properties to predict vegetation characteristics that are important for a wide range of ecological applications. Our aim was to predict fresh above-ground biomass of heterogeneous alpine grasslands in two areas and at two ecological scales. We assessed model plausibility for an intensively studied alpine grassland site (plant community scale) having distinct biomass and ungulate grazing patterns. Location Alpine grasslands in the Swiss National Park. Methods Biomass data were collected in 51 plots and combined with imaging spectroscopy data to establish simple ratio models. We analysed the predictive power and transferability of models developed in two areas (Val Trupchun, Il Fuorn) and at two ecological scales (regional, local). In a next step, we compared our results to the broadband normalized difference vegetation index ( NDVI). Finally, we assessed the correlations between model predictions and plant biomass distribution at the plant community scale. Results The best local simple ratio models yielded a model fit of R2 = 0.60 and R2 = 0.30, respectively, the best regional model a fit of R2 = 0.44. NDVI model performance was weaker for the regional and one local area, but slightly better for the other local area. However, at the plant community scale only the local model showed a significant positive correlation ( RS = 0.39) with the known biomass distribution. Further, predictive power decreased when models were transferred from one local area to another or from one ecological scale to another. Conclusions Our study demonstrated that imaging spectroscopy is generally useful to predict above-ground plant biomass in alpine grasslands with distinct grazing patterns. Site-specific local models based on simple ratio indices performed better than the NDVI or regional models, suggesting that standardized approaches might not be adequate, particularly in heterogeneous grasslands inhabited by large ungulates. We emphasize the importance of collecting ground reference data covering the expected range of productivity and plant species composition. Moreover, plant community-scale data from a previous study proved to be extremely valuable to test model plausibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera traps are commonly used to study mammal ecology and they occasionally capture previously undocumented species interactions. The key deer ( Odocoileus virginianus clavium ) is an endangered endemic subspecies of the Florida Keys, where it exists with few predators. We obtained a camera trap sequence of 80 photos in which a key deer interacted with two northern raccoons ( Procyon lotor ). One of the raccoons groomed the deer’s face for ∼1 min. This interaction is peculiar and appears mutualistic because the deer was not concerned and willingly remained still throughout the physical contact. Although mutualistic relationships between deer and birds are common, we are unaware of any previously documented mesocarnivore-deer mutualisms. Key deer have evolved in the absence of mammalian predators and we hypothesize that they exhibit reduced vigilance or concern when encountering other species because of predator naivety. Key deer and raccoons are commonly associated with humans and urbanization and an alternative hypothesis is that the interactions are a consequence of heightened deer density, causing a greater probability of sustained interactions with the common mesocarnivores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reintroductions may play an important role in re-establishing key ecosystem functions and are potentially a valuable ecosystem-restoration tool. Here, we focus on the role of reintroduced ungulates as seeds dispersers - a key process in shaping plant community structure and dynamics. In a comparative study, we investigated which plant species are dispersed by three sympatric ungulates in the Negev desert, Israel: Arabian oryx O ryx leucoryx, Asiatic wild ass E quus hemionus and dorcas gazelle G azella dorcas. The oryx and wild ass were locally extirpated and recently reintroduced while the gazelle is the only wide-ranging ungulate that has existed continuously in the region. We hypothesized that although all three species are ungulates, because of expected differences in diet resulting from the differences in their size and digestive characteristics, there will be little overlap in their role as seed dispersers. In addition, we experimentally tested the importance of ingestion of the seeds of the keystone acacia A cacia raddiana and the presence of dung on germination success and seedlings growth. We found that each of the ungulates dispersed a different assemblage of plant species with little overlap, highlighting the importance of the reintroduction of both species in ecosystem restoration. Oryx were the key dispersers of acacia seeds, and oryx-ingested seeds planted with oryx pellets had a germination success 250 times higher than non-ingested seeds planted without pellets. Seedlings from ingested seeds also grew faster than seedlings from non-ingested seeds. We found little redundancy between ungulates as seed dispersers in this region, highlighting the importance of reintroductions as a restorative process even when other species from the same guild still exist in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snow is one of the most limiting environmental factors for large wildlife of temperate and arctic zones during winter. Snow depth may limit space use, increase energy expenditure related to movement, limit resource availability, and ultimately affect individual survival. Most of the studies on the effect of snow on animal space use have used cumulative snow depth. The amount of recently fallen snow, however, could be more relevant for wildlife, especially in alpine and northern environments, where wind shifts and hardens the snow cover constantly. From 2011 to 2013, we studied space use of mountain goats ( Oreamnos americanus (Blainville, 1816)) within Jasper National Park in Alberta, Canada. During winter, daily and weekly movements decreased with the amount of recently fallen snow, but not with cumulative snow depth. These results indicate that recently fallen snow should be included in wildlife space-use studies during winter. Limited movement and range size of mountain goats also highlight the energy-saving tactic used in winter by this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The landscape in southern Iberia has, over the last four decades, altered as a result of the land abandonment, while the abundance of wild boar Sus scrofa and red deer Cervus elaphus has simultaneously increased, and some key prey species such as the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus have declined. In this work we explore: 1) the relationships between big game species (red deer and wild boar) and rabbit abundance, and 2) whether these relationships could have effects on food quality (total nitrogen available in the pasture and percentage of leguminosae) and food availability of (herbaceous cover). We therefore selected nine big game estates with a range of abundance as regards ungulates and similar Mediterranean habitat. Wild boar abundance was statistically negative in relation to rabbit abundance, while no significant statistical relationships between rabbit abundance and habitat structure and forage quality were evidenced. However, wild boar abundance, but not that of red deer, was negatively associated with leguminosae cover, and the percentage of surface rooted by wild boar was negatively associated with the percentage of herbaceous cover. Overall, our results suggest that the abundance of wild boar is negatively related to that of rabbits, and could have a negative effects on rabbit abundances by food competition as a result of: 1) a decrease in herbaceous coverage and leguminosae in the pasture and 2) an increase in the total percentage of soil disturbed as a result of rooting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the interrelationship of environmental and biological factors that influence population growth rates of invasive Sus scrofa (Wild Pig) is a requisite for population management of the species. Such information can be used to evaluate various types of population control to ensure that the most cost-effective damage-abatement methods are used. We developed a sex- and age-structured model to simulate general population dynamics of Wild Pigs in Texas. Our objectives were to estimate potential statewide Wild Pig population-growth rates for Texas, identify model parameters that most influenced population trajectories, and compare resulting model predictions with ancillary population-trend data. Our Wild Pig simulation model estimated a mean annual growth rate of 0.32 (SE = 0.01), and stochastic model projections of Wild Pig population sizes ranged from 3.6 million to 16.9 million after 5 years. To evaluate parameter sensitivity, we recast our simulation results into a Bayesian belief network, and evaluated input-parameter influence based on variance reduction using Shannon’s measure of mutual information. Our results indicated that the most influential model parameters within our simulation were number of litters per female and number of piglets recruited into the population, while adult and juvenile survival had little influence on Wild Pig population size within our simulations. Overall, our results suggest that natural resource managers should focus efforts towards reducing Wild Pig reproductive success, as opposed to attempting to increase adult mortality, when conducting Wild Pig population-control campaigns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study to show that the relative abundance of ungulates communities positively correlates with the number of exclusively utilized plant species. It mentions species used for the experiment, method and final observations. Graphs depicting phytomass and number of forage plant species and the ratio between parts of food resources utilized by ungulates are also presented.

Ungulates impact woody species' growth and abundance but little is understood about the comparative impacts of different ungulate species on forest expansion in savanna environments. Replacement of native herbivore guilds with livestock [i.e., beef cattle ( Bos taurus)] has been hypothesized as a factor facilitating trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides Michx.) encroachment into grasslands of the Northern Great Plains. We used a controlled herbivory study in the Parklands of western Canada to compare the impact of native ungulates and cattle on aspen saplings. Native ungulate treatments included a mixed species guild and sequences of herbivory by different ungulates [bison ( Bison bison subsp. bison), elk ( Cervus elaphus) then deer ( Odocoileus hemionus); or deer, elk, then bison]. Herbivory treatments were replicated in three pastures, within which sets of 40 marked aspen saplings (<1.8 m) were tracked along permanent transects at 2-week intervals, and compared to a non-grazed aspen stand. Stems were assessed for mortality and incremental damage (herbivory, leader breakage, stem abrasion and trampling). Final mortality was greater with exposure to any type of herbivore, but remained similar between ungulate treatments. However, among all treatments, the growth of aspen was highest with exposure only to cattle. Herbivory of aspen was attributed primarily to elk within the native ungulate treatments, with other forms of physical damage, and ultimately sapling mortality, associated with exposure to bison. Overall, these results indicate that native ungulates, specifically elk and bison, have more negative impacts on aspen saplings and provide evidence that native and domestic ungulates can have different functional effects on woody plant dynamics in savanna ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Utah, farmers are concerned that ungulates are damaging safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius) fields. We examined elk ( Cervus elaphus) and mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) damage to safflower production in San Juan County, Utah during 2009 and 2010. We collected data on damaged safflower plants within 28 fields, totaling 1,581 ha (13 fields totaling 963 ha during 2009; 15 fields totaling 618 ha during 2010). We compared 3 methods to assess yield losses: ungulate-proof exclosures, adjacent plant compensation method, and counting the number of damaged plants in 50-m transects (safflower count method). Exclosures were of limited use because they could not be erected until farmers stopped cultivating their fields. Hence, this method did not account for ungulate damage to young plants. The adjacent plant compensation method assessed yields within 1 m of a randomly selected damaged plant to account for any compensatory growth of neighboring plants, but this method proved inaccurate because ungulate herbivory was concentrated so that a browsed plant was often surrounded by other browsed plants so no compensatory growth by surrounding plants occurred. The most accurate method was the safflower count method, which determined the number of damaged plants within a field and then multiplied this number by the decrease in yield from an average damaged plant. We used this method to examine 981,000 plants for damage. Deer and elk damaged or killed 7.2% of safflower plants during 2009 and 1.4% of plants during 2010. Overall yield reduction was 2.9% during 2009 and 0.6% in 2010. The value of safflower loss within all surveyed fields in 2009 was $9,023 for a loss of $9.42/ha. The loss of value within surveyed fields in 2010 was $2,330, or $3.77/ha. The best model for predicting ungulate damage during 2009 included distance to a canyon and the percent of a field bordered by a fallow field, whereas the best model for 2010 included distance to a canyon and the percent of a field bordered by a wheat field. We surveyed safflower farmers during the spring of 2010 to compare perceived losses in their fields during 2009 to those measured that same year. Farmers believed that damage by deer and elk reduced their yields by 20% with most damage caused by elk ( ${\bar {x}}$ = 12% by elk, 7% by deer, 1% by other wildlife). On average, perceptions of damage were 5.2 times greater than the actual levels we measured during 2009. This was not surprising because farmers usually surveyed their field from the field's edge where ungulate damage was concentrated. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Procapra przewalskii (Büchner, 1891), commonly called Przewalski's gazelle, is polytypic with 1 of the 2 subspecies (P. p. diversicornis) likely extinct. The species now occurs only in the Qinghai Lake region in northeastern Qinghai Province, western China, and predominately inhabits semiarid grassland steppe, stable sand dunes, and the desert-shrub ecotone between them. Numbers and distribution of P. przewalskii have decreased severely from historic levels, and up to 10 small and disjunct populations are vulnerable because of agricultural usurpation of preferred habitat, competition with livestock, and illegal hunting. Total population is perhaps as high as 1,000-1,300 individuals. It is a Class I species and listed as ''Critically Endangered'' in China and considered ''Endangered'' by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is arguably among the most endangered large mammals on earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]