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Background: The shea tree is a well-known carbon sink in Africa that requires a sustainable conservation of its gene pool. However, the genetic structure of its population is not well studied, especially in Côte d’Ivoire. In this study, 333 superior shea tree genotypes conserved in situ in Côte d’Ivoire were collected and genotyped with the aim of investigating its genetic diversity and population structure to facilitate suitable conservation and support future breeding efforts to adapt to climate change effects. Results: A total of 7,559 filtered high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified using the genotyping by sequencing technology. The gene diversity (HE) ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.26, while the polymorphism information content (PIC) value ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.24, indicating a moderate genetic diversity among the studied genotypes. The population structure model classified the 333 genotypes into three genetic groups (GP1, GP2, and GP3). GP1 contained shea trees that mainly originated from the Poro, Tchologo, and Hambol districts, while GP2 and GP3 contained shea trees collected from the Bagoué district. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) identified 55% variance within populations and 45% variance within individuals, indicating a very low genetic differentiation (or very high gene exchange) between these three groups (FST = 0.004, gene flow Nm = 59.02). Morphologically, GP1 displayed spreading tree growth habit, oval nut shape, higher mean nut weight (10.62 g), wide leaf (limb width = 4.63 cm), and small trunk size (trunk circumference = 133.4 cm). Meanwhile, GP2 and GP3 showed similar morphological characteristics: erect and spreading tree growth habit, ovoid nut shape, lower mean nut weight (GP2: 8.89 g; GP3: 8.36 g), thin leaf (limb width = 4.45 cm), and large trunk size (GP2: 160.5 cm, GP3: 149.1 cm). A core set of 100 superior shea trees, representing 30% of the original population size and including individuals from all four study districts, was proposed using the “maximum length sub-tree function” in DARwin v. 6.0.21. Conclusion: These findings provide new knowledge of the genetic diversity and population structure of Ivorian shea tree genetic resources for the design of effective collection and conservation strategies for the efficient use of inbreeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shea tree is among the socio‐economically and environmentally most important plants in the Sudano‐Sahelian region of Africa. Shea butter is internationally valued for use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and confectionary industries. Scaling and describing phenological growth stages is of great importance in crops management. However, such phenological scale is still lacking for shea tree. To fill this gap, we documented the different growth stages of shea tree by referencing to the Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale. Eight of the ten principal growth stages (0–9) and 43 secondary growth stages (0–9) were described in shea tree. Among the eight principal stages, four were related to reproductive phenophases: inflorescence emergence stage (5), flowering stage (6), fruit development stage (7), and fruit maturity stage (8). The remaining four principal stages concerned vegetative phenophases and contained: bud development stage (0), leaf development stage (1), shoot development stage (3), and senescence stage (9). Observations of shea tree phenophases depicted asynchronous growth patterns with overlapping secondary growth stages of different principal stages within an individual tree canopy at the same time. The proposed phenological growth scale specific to shea tree but compatible with other crops is a valuable contribution for the implementation of crops management protocols and the standardisation of research between different laboratories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. nilotica) is an important commercial tree for domestic oil and industrial products of cosmetics, chocolate and other confectionaries traded grown worldwide. We studied seed morphometric characteristics and crude oil content of Shea nuts in Uganda. Five populations, comprising of 16 ethnovarieties, were selected from Eastern, Northern and West Nile Sub-regions of Uganda, based on their attributes as judged by the farmers. Fresh kernel weight ranged from 2 to 18.85 mg per seed. Kernel weight increased with Shea fruit weight (y = 0.1499x + 6.1887, R² = 0.306). Moyo district had the highest oil content (54.37 ± 0.32%); while Amuru district had the lowest oil content (50.5 ± 1.32%). Oil content decreased with increasing kernel size (y = -0.4541x + 57.303, R² = 0.2116) and dry matter content (y = 0.635x - 9.863, R²= 0.011); and varied between ethnovarieties and Shea tree populations, P = 0.003 and P< 0.001, respectively. Tinny seeded (45.7 - 65.49%), Round fruited (45.41 - 65.91%), Dwarf tree (45.19 - 64.19%), Elliptical fruited (45.32 - 64.19%) and Soft pulped (42.16 - 69.77%) ethnovarieties had the highest oil content. Narrow sense heritability (h2) for oil yield was 1.72; while response to selection (R) was 16.48 with genetic gain (Gs) of 2.21%, given 10% top selection intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous therapies, or traditional medicines (TMs), constitute a highly accessible and continuously growing health system in many parts of the world, including Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). Shea butter, a fat produced from the kernels of the shea tree, has historically been used as an indigenous therapy for dermatologic ailments in SSA. Characterizing traditional therapeutic applications for shea butter is important to inform the continued development of TM in SSA. We conducted a literature review aimed at identifying all available publications on the use of shea butter to treat dermatoses within SSA and evaluating patterns of use. We found 24 dermatologic uses across 30 references. The most common study design was descriptive cross‐sectional analysis (46.7%), often relying on the use of in‐depth interviews, focus groups, and surveys. Eight SSA countries were represented and there were disparities in availability of information across SSA with the eastern and southern regions less likely to be represented. The most frequently investigated conditions were scabies, wound healing, and umbilical cord care. Shea butter was most commonly used in combination with other ingredients to produce a medical treatment with the most frequent adjuvant being Elaeis guineensis, African oil palm. Broad use of TM to treat varied skin diseases throughout SSA warrants increased investigations into this field in order to further develop the capacity of TM as a source of healthcare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Over time, herbal plants and their various components have been major sources of therapeutic medicine for man. A comparative study was carried out to determine the phytochemical components and antibacterial activities of the different crude extracts of Euphorbia heterophylla and Vitellaria paradoxa roots on four enteric bacteria; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Methodology: Root samples of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa were collected, washed, air dried and processed to fine powder in the microbiology laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. Crude extract of the root samples was done by the cold maceration technique using four solvents (chloroform, methanol, petroleum ether and water). Phytochemical analysis of the extracts was done using previously described technique, and in vitro antibacterial activities of different concentrations of the extracts (50-200 mg/ml) and a standard antibiotic (ciprofloxacin) were tested on four enteric bacteria (S. typhi, S. flexneri, E. coli, P. vulgaris) by the agar diffusion test. In vivo antibacterial activities of the two plants were also tested by daily oral administration of 2000 mg/kg bodyweight (for 7 days) of each extract on inbred mice infected through intraperitoneal inoculation of an infective dose of each of the four enteric bacteria. Data were computed as mean ± standard error and analysed by the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4. Associations between variables were determined using analysis of variance (ANOVA), with p < 0.05 considered as significant value. Results: Phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts of both plants revealed the presence of cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins but V. paradoxa contain more carbohydrates and starch, and less phlobatannins, compared to E. heterophylla. In vitro assay showed dose-dependent antibacterial activity of the methanol, aqueous and chloroform (but not petroleum ether) extracts of the two plant roots. The in vitro antibacterial activities of the different extracts of V. paradoxica extracts were significantly higher (higher mean diameters of inhibition zones) than those of E. heterophylla (p<0.05), and methanol extracts gave the highest antibacterial effects. However, the root extract of E. heterophylla gave a higher antibacterial activity with the in vivo assay on inbred mice than V. paradoxa, and methanol extracts of the two plant extracts gave the highest in vivo activity, followed by aqueous extract and least activity was obtained with the chloroform extract. Conclusion: Crude extracts of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa roots produce antibacterial activity against enteric Gram-negative bacteria pathogens involved in diarrhoea illnesses. Further researches should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compounds in the crude extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea fruit (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) has a high potential for alleviation of hunger and poverty in Burkina Faso. The fruit pulp is an important source of food for rural communities, especially at times of food shortages. In addition, the commercial value of the shea tree enables local women to gather and sell the fruit to increase their incomes. However, stakeholders in the shea sector noted that pulp rot was a major constraint to their activity. Ripe fruit from six ethno-varieties were sampled every 2 weeks from trees in six agroforestry parks over two consecutive years (2017 and 2018). Shea fruits were then incubated in the laboratory until the emergence of adult fruit flies. Seven fruit fly species were identified, the most important of which was Ceratitis silvestrii Bezzi (54.75% of the individual fruit flies that emerged), followed by Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel (41.16%). The average rate of fruit damage differed significantly between ethno-varieties and collection dates, ranging from 2.08 to 16.23% in early shea fruits fruiting season and from 39 to 66.61% in the middle of the season, depending on the ethno-variety and the season. Ethno-varieties ripening in the mid shea fruits fruiting season suffered more fruit fly attacks than early and late ripening ethno-varieties. This study provided interesting information which will be used in the development of strategies for the control of these insect pests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study characterizes seed-related traits, phytochemical, physiochemical parameters and fatty acid profile of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) seeds collected from the Kosubosu, Fufu and Sare areas of Kwara State, Nigeria to determine the effects of microclimate on seed morphology, biochemical and oil constituents. Seed morphological data were analyzed for variability. Seed oil was extracted for phytochemical constituents, physicochemical properties, and fatty acid profiling by gas chromatography equipped with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Results showed intra and inter-locational variations in seed characters. Most fruits had 1–2 seeds. Seeds were predominantly brown and very few were dark brown. Phytochemicals and physicochemical parameters of the seed oil varied with place of collection. Alkaloid, saponin, tannin and phytate contents ranged between 0.79–0.84, 1.20–1.26, 1.48–1.56 and 0.15–0.18 mg g−1 respectively. The density of the oil was less than that of water, acid value ranged from 10.58–13.56 mg KOH g−1 and iodine values were between 36.63 to 40.32 g I2 (100 g)–1. Saponification values lie between 160.39 and 184.14 mg KOH g−1; and free fatty acid was within 5.32–6.81 %. Peroxide, ɑ-tocopherol, total phenol and oxalate values as well as viscosity of the oil also varied; however, refractive index was similar. Ethyl oleate and octadecanoic acids were present and most abundance in all the locations, while glycidol stearate was only found in Fufu samples with three other fatty acids. Five fatty acids were present in Kosubosu, while Sare had only two. The results obtained in the present study indicate that shea oil could be used for medicinal, nutritional and industrial purposes. Since seed characters, phytochemical, physicochemical and fatty acid compositions varied with the microclimate, environmental and micro-ecological conditions should be considered when collecting seeds for oil utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progressively changing the intensity of cultivation and the reduced fallow periods has led to insufficient regeneration in the parkland of Vitellaria paradoxa which is included in the list of fruit tree species constituting African forest genetic resource priorities for in-situ conservation. However, the overall influence of heavy shading has led to the production of a tree with little height growth and a poorly developed crown. Germination and early growth studies were carried out in the nursery of the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), Ibadan. Seeds of V. paradoxa were collected from three main agro-ecological zones in the Nigeria humid savanna where the species is endemic: Seedlings at two--leaf stage were prickled into medium sized polythene pots (16x14x12 cm3 ) filled with nursery topsoil and were subjected to three different light intensities (100%, 75% and 50%) lux meters. Growth variables assessed included seedling height, stem collar diameter, leaf production and leaf area, all measured at monthly intervals for six months, shoot and root biomass, used to estimate the net assimilation rate (NAR) and relative growth rate (RGR). The data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference (LSD) used to separate the means at P≤0.05. Seedlings subjected to 100% light intensity consistently showed better growth in all the parameters while seedlings exposed to 75% and below had poor performance. Artificial regeneration of V. paradoxa which is a light demanding species of open sites and parkland savanna will according to the findings of this work require clearance or spacing out of such field of tree species that have tendency of forming canopies over Vitellaria paradoxa.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trees in agroforestry parklands influence crops both through competitive and facilitative mechanism, but the effects are challenging to disentangle due to the complexity of the system with high variability in tree cover structure and species diversity and crop combinations. Focusing on a landscape in central Burkina Faso dominated by Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa , this paper examines how tree cover influences crop yield at landscape scale using satellite data and spatial statistics. Our analysis is based on data from 2017 to 2018 with differences in rainfall to assess the stability in identified relationships. Our findings showed that tree canopy cover and tree density inside the fields tended to decrease crop yield because of competition, but also that these variables when considering the surrounding landscape exerted an opposite effect because of their buffering effects. The explanatory variables representing soil properties did have limited effects on crop yield in this study. These patterns were consistent during the two years of monitoring. Overall, our results suggest that farmers in this area might manage the tree cover in a way that optimizes sustainable yields as canopy cover and tree density in most parklands is below the limits identified here where competition outweight the facilitative effects. • We studied causes of crop yield variability in parklands at landscape scale. • Satellite remote sensing and field data was used in spatial statistics. • Trees in agricultural fields tend to reduce crop yield through resource competition. • Surrounding trees had positive influence on crop yield via buffering effects. • Fewer large trees have more positive influence on crop yield than many small ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constituents of shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa ; Sapotaceae) kernels are commonly used as functional food and for skin care by indigenous peoples in Africa. Twenty-six MeOH extract samples of defatted shea kernels from seven sub-Saharan countries, i.e. , Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, and Uganda, were investigated in this study. HPLC coupled to an evaporative light-scattering detector and LC-QTOF (time-of-flight)-MS revealed that the extracts contained sugars (25.6–80.2%) as the most predominant constituents, followed by oleanane-type triterpene glycosides (4.9–35.2%), accompanied by minor amounts of cucurbates (1.0–21.0%) and phenolic compounds (0.3–16.0%). Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis classified the twenty-six samples into three groups. Upon evaluation of the melanogenesis-inhibitory activities of all samples in B16 melanoma cells induced by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, it was found that samples S2, S3, and S21 were lower-risk melanogenesis inhibitors (39.4–42.5% melanin content, 78.6–91.6% cell viability) with a small activity-to-cytotoxicity ratio (0.18–0.94), and were superior to reference arbutin at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. These results suggest that the extracts of defatted shea kernels and their constituents can be regarded as skin-whitening agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential for the development of shea industries to increase women's incomes is the focus of a number of development interventions in rural West Africa. However, concerns have been voiced over the potential effects of increased commercialization on women's rights over this resource. This study examines women's participation and rights over shea production in a context of increasing commercialization in northern Ghana through a survey of 90 producers and eight oral histories. Although shea incomes are frequently described in the literature as falling under women's control, joint spending decisions for shea income were reported by half of the married women surveyed. This does not appear to be an outcome of growing assertion of men's rights over shea trees themselves but rather is explained, by women, largely in relation to their husbands' involvement in nut production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combining antibiotics with resistance reversing agents is a key strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Upon screening antimicrobial activities of plants used in traditional medicine, we found that a leaf dichloromethane extract from the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) had antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with further evidence of synergy when combined with β-lactams. Using HPLC-MS, we identified ursolic (UA) and oleanolic acids (OA) in leaves and twigs of this species, and quantified them by HPLC-UV as the major constituents in leaf extracts (21% and 6% respectively). Both pure triterpenic acids showed antimicrobial activity against reference and clinical strains of MRSA, with MICs ranging from 8-16 mg/L for UA to 32-128 mg/L for OA. They were highly synergistic with β-lactams (ampicillin and oxacillin) at subMIC concentrations. Reversion of MRSA phenotype was attributed to their capacity to delocalize PBP2 from the septal division site, as observed by fluorescence microscopy, and to disturb thereby peptidoglycan synthesis. Moreover, both compounds also inhibited β-lactamases activity of living bacteria (as assessed by inhibition of nitrocefin hydrolysis), but not in bacterial lysates, suggesting an indirect mechanism for this inhibition. In a murine model of subcutaneous MRSA infection, local administration of UA was synergistic with nafcillin to reduce lesion size and inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β) production. Thus, these data highlight the potential interest of triterpenic acids as resistance reversing agents in combination with β-lactams against MRSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ethyl Acetate Fraction (EACF) of Ethanol Leaf Extract of Vitellaria paradoxa (ELVp) was assessed against Sodium Arsenite (SA)-induced toxicity in Drosophila melanogaster. The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of EACF was carried out. The molecular docking of the compounds obtained from GC-MS was performed against D. melanogaster glutathione-S-transferase-2 (GST-2). Firstly, D. melanogaster (Harwich strain) was treated with EACF to determine its effect on longevity. Secondly, D. melanogaster was fed with EACF (1.0 and 3.0 mg/5 g diet) and/or SA (0.0625 mM) for 5 days. Thereafter, the ameliorative role of EACF in SA-induced toxicity was evaluated using the fly's emergence rate, locomotor activity, oxidative stress and antioxidant biomarkers. The in-silico study revealed varying degrees of binding affinity of the twelve active compounds of EACF against GST-2 which was comparable with the co-crystalized ligand (glutathione). The EACF increased the longevity of D. melanogaster by 20.0 % compared with control and ameliorated SA-induced reduction of emergence rate and locomotor performance by 178.2 and 20.5 %, respectively. Additionally, EACF ameliorated SA-induced reduction of total thiol and non-protein thiols and inhibition of catalase and GST activities (p < 0.05). These results corroborated with histological data obtained in the fat body of D. melanogaster. Overall, EACF augmented the antioxidant system of D. melanogaster and prevented sodium arsenite-induced oxidative stress due to its high antioxidant property. [Display omitted] • Ethyl acetate fraction (EACF) of Vitellaria paradoxa leaves possesses twelve bioactive compounds. • EACF bioactive compounds have good binding affinity with glutathione-S-transferase 2. • EACF prolonged the life span of D. melanogaster. • EACF ameliorated sodium arsenite-induced oxidative stress. • The EACF protective mechanism is due to its antioxidative properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of Shea butter is highly affected by processing factors. Hence, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of conditioning duration ( CD), moisture content ( MC), and die temperature ( DT) of screw expeller on Shea butter quality. A combination of 33 full factorial design and response surface methodology was used for this investigation. Response variables were refractive index, acid value, and peroxide value. The model enabled to identify the optimum operating settings ( CD = 28-30 min, MC = 3-5 g/100 g, and DT = 65-70°C) for maximize refractive index and minimum acid value. For minimum peroxide value 0 min CD, 10 g/100 g MC, and 30°C were discovered. In all-over optimization, optimal values of 30 min CD, 9.7 g/100 g MC, and 70°C DT were found. Hence, the processing factors must be at their optimal values to achieve high butter quality and consistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to evaluate the growth response of three leafy vegetables (Celosia argentea, Amaranthus cruentus and Amaranthus hypochodriacus) to the leaf extract of Vitellaria paradoxa. Forty-five (45) experimental plastic containers were filled with 5 kg of loamy soil each and randomly allocated to the following regimes: control, 20 g, 40 g, 60 g and 80 g of powdered leaves of V. paradoxa, in three (3) replicates for each test crop respectively. It was observed that the response of the three leafy vegetables, grown within different composition of V. paradoxa leaves, are concentration dependent with respect to the studied growth parameters (plant height, leaf number, leaf area, stem girth). This indicated that V. paradoxa has allelopathic potential on the studied vegetables and therefore it could be used for natural weed control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments, including, inflammation and fever. Therefore the present research investigates the anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic effects of V. paradoxa stem bark extracts in rats and the isolation and characterization of its active constituents. Methods The anti-inflammatory activity of ethyl acetate extract of V. Paradoxa (VPEE) was evaluated by use of the carrageenan-induced paw oedema model in rats. Moreover, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) was induced by injection of Freund's Completed Adjuvant (FCA) into the subplantar surface of the hind paw of the male Wistar rats. Paw volume was measured plethysmometrically. Joint swelling was measured using electronic vernier caliper. Hot plate test was used to assess the effect of VPEE on hyperalgesia while open field was used to assess the locomotors activity. The relative weight of spleen, liver and thymus was obtained as well as some haematological parameters. Tibiotarsal joint was extracted for histopathology under light microscope. Chemical analysis was carried out by high resolution mass spectrometry and one and two-dimensional NMR techniques. Results LC–MS analysis of the EtOAc extract revealed the presence of a new triterpenoid and several known compounds. The structure of the novel compound was elucidated by means of LC–MS and selected 1D and 2D-NMR experiments. The biological effects of ethyl acetate (VPEE), methanol (VPME) and water extracts (VPAE) of V . paradoxa were tested on carrageenan model of acute inflammation and FCA-induced rheumatoid arthritis animal model. In the carrageenan-induced inflammation, VPEE (150 mg/kg) significant (66.67%) inhibited the first (after 1 h) and the second phase (4–6 h) of edema formation. On the Complete Freund's adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis, VPEE at the same dose showed a significantly protective effect. On days 19–28th of treatment, the maximum inflammatory percentage was between 9.60 and 8.91% for the VPEE compared to 30.91–24.29% for the controls. All the extracts significantly reduced the score of arthritis but the maximal reduction was obtained with the VPEE on day 24th of the experimentation. The altered haematological parameters in the arthritic rats were significantly recovered to near normal by the treatment with VPEE at the dose of 150 mg/kg. Further histological studies revealed the anti-arthritic activity by preventing cartilage destruction of the arthritic joints of adjuvant arthritic rats. The spleen hypertrophy induced by the FCA was also significantly inhibited. Conclusion These findings provide pharmacological basis for the application of the VPEE in inflammatory disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vitellaria paradoxa is a traditional medicinal plant of Cameroon. Several studies on this plant have focused on the cosmetic profile of its fruits. The present study focuses on the anti-inflammatory potency of stem barks extract of this plant. Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effect of methanolic extract of V. paradoxa (VPME) stem barks on inflammatory response in rats. Materials and Methods: Anti-inflammatory effects of VPME were evaluated in acute and chronic (28 days) inflammation induced in Wistar albino rats. The effects on hyperalgesia and locomotors activity were also quantified. The relative weight of lymphoid organs was obtained as well as some hematological parameters. Results: In the carrageenan-induced inflammation, VPME (75 mg/kg) exhibited a significant (66.67%) inhibition after 1 h. On the complete Freund's adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis, VPME showed a significant protective effect with 8.12% inflammation against 25.00% for the control group after 2 days of the treatment. The extract (75 and 150 mg/kg) significantly reduced the score of arthritis with a maximum obtained on day 19th of the experimentation. There was a significant increase in the reaction time of rats on the hot plate as well as the exploratory activities of the animals in the open field. This extract significantly prevented weight, hemoglobin and red blood cells losses, and spleen hypertrophy. A protective action against skin destruction and cartilage erosion was evident. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the extract revealed the presence of catechins. Conclusions: These findings suggested that V. paradoxa may contribute to the reduction of the inflammatory response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetation was sampled in 86 plots of riparian forest and dry forests of northern Togo. The recorded data were subjected to floristic and quantitative ecological analyses in order to describe the main woody plant communities and their size structure. The plant groupings were determined by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and defined through the indicator value method. Alpha diversity index, and tree species structure features were computed for forest woody plant groupings. Results classified four woody communities. Two of them belonged to riparian forest while the other two, dry forest. A total of 77 plant species consisted of woody species. Pterocarpus santalinoïdes and Anogeissus leiocarpus were the most important species based on their indicator values. The diversity indices of P. santalinoïdes, Eugenia kerstingii and A. leiocarpus and Vitellaria paradoxa plant communities were significant and indicated a wide distribution of species in the area, while their structural features relected those of forests characteristic of the Sudanian climatic zones. In general, the natural regeneration rate among the plant groupings was satisfactory and quiet similar to those found in previous works in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oils from the leaves and stem-bark of Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn. obtained by hydrodistillation were analyzed by GC/GC-MS. A total of 68 and 33 compounds representing 90.1% and 95.1% of the total oils were identified in the leaves and stem bark, respectively. The major constituent in the two oils was linalool (12.2 to 15.0%). The essential oil has LC50 value between 160.098 and 171.240 μg/ml indicating moderate toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Response surface methodology (RSM) was adopted for the optimization of process variables in the alkaline peroxide oxidation (APO) pretreatment of Vitellaria paradoxa sawdust based on central composite design (CCD) experiments. A 23 five level CCD with central and axial points was used to develop a statistical model for the optimization of process variables. Maximum response for the pretreatment was obtained when applying the optimum values for temperature (150°C), time (45min), and 1% (v/v) H2O2. At the optimum conditions, up to 70% of the initial hemicellulose was removed in treatments, which also caused some delignification (up to 11% of the initial lignin was removed), whereas cellulose was almost quantitatively retained in the solid phase. Alkaline peroxide assisted wet air oxidation (APAWAO) pretreatment at the optimum conditions resulted in enrichment up to 60% cellulose content along with solubilization of 80% hemicellulose and 17% of lignin initially present in the raw sawdust. Reducing sugars yield after 72h enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated biomass at optimized APO conditions was 177.89mgequivalent glucoseg−1 dry biomass. Addition of 10bar air pressure at the optimized pretreatment conditions increased the sugars yield to 263.49mgequivalent glucoseg−1 dry biomass. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study alkaline wet air oxidation (WAO), alkaline peroxide assisted wet air oxidation (APAWAO), and enzymatic hydrolysis methods were evaluated for conversion of wood residue (sawdust) to reducing sugars. Cellulose content, hemicellulose solubilization, and lignin removal for WAO pretreatment conditions were optimized by statistical analysis using a 23-full factorial design with reaction temperature, air pressure, and reaction time as the process parameters. An optimum WAO condition of 170 °C, 1.0 MPa, 10 min was predicted and experimentally validated to give 518 g kg-1 cellulose content, 580 g kg-1 hemicellulose solubilization, and 171 g kg-1 lignin removal in the solid fraction. About 7 g L-1 reducing sugars was detected in the pretreated liquid fraction. Presoaking the dry raw biomass for 24 h in H2O2 followed by wet air oxidation (APAWAO) at the optimized conditions resulted in enrichment up to 683 g kg-1 cellulose content in the solid fraction along with solubilization of 789 g kg-1 hemicellulose and 280 g kg-1 lignin removal. The yield of reducing sugars from WAO optimized conditions by two enzyme preparations (cellulase and β-glucosidase) was 131 mg g-1 of dry substrate, while the APAWAO yielded 274 mg g-1. Pretreatments used in this study showed to have a disrupting effect on the lignocellulosic biomass, making the treated materials accessible for enzymatic hydrolysis. The combination of presoaking in H2O2 before WAO pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis was found to give the highest sugar yield. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A survey among 246 people belonging to 14 ethnic groups and living in 5 different parklands in Benin revealed different practices to process shea kernels (namely boiling followed sun drying and smoking) and extract shea butter. A relation between parklands, gathering period, and sun-drying conditions was established. Moisture content and appearance of kernels were the selection criteria for users of shea kernels; color was the main characteristic to buy butter. Constraints to be solved are long processing times, lack of milling equipment and high water requirements. Best practices for smoking, sun drying, and roasting operations need to be established for further improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of the savanna biome has been deeply marked by repeated contraction/expansion phases due to climate perturbations during the Quaternary period. In this study, we investigated the impact of the last glacial maximum (LGM) on the present genetic pattern of Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree), a major African savanna tree. A range-wide sampling of the species enabled us to sample 374 individuals from 71 populations distributed throughout sub-Sahelian Africa. Trees were genotyped using 3 chloroplasts and 12 nuclear microsatellites, and were sequenced for 2 polymorphic chloroplast intergenic spacers. Analyses of genetic diversity and structure were based on frequency-based and Bayesian methods. Potential distributions of V. paradoxa at present, during the LGM and the last interglacial period, were examined using DIVA-GIS ecological niche modelling (ENM). Haplotypic and allelic richness varied significantly across the range according to chloroplast and nuclear microsatellites, which pointed to higher diversity in West Africa. A high but contrasted level of differentiation was revealed among populations with a clear phylogeographic signal, with both nuclear (FST=0.21; RST=0.28; RST>RST (permuted)) and chloroplast simple sequence repeats (SSRs) (GST=0.81; NST=0.90; NST>NST (permuted)). We identified a strong geographically related structure separating western and eastern populations, and a substructure in the eastern part of the area consistent with subspecies distinction. Using ENM, we deduced that perturbations during the LGM fragmented the potential eastern distribution of shea tree, but not its distribution in West Africa. Our main results suggest that climate variations are the major factor explaining the genetic pattern of V. paradoxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this article is to examine how agricultural intensification and changing land tenure practices impact the management of two valuable parkland species: Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa. The article presents a conceptual framework that examines customary land tenure in an agroecological context. This required a variety of methods, including qualitative surveys on livelihoods and parkland management, surveys on land use history, and tree density measurements in farmers' fields. The research, conducted in northern Benin, reveals that farmers historically exploited the relative sparseness of Parkia biglobosa in natural vegetation by sowing its seeds in their fields in order to distinguish them from unclaimed land. As agriculture has intensified, farmers have abandoned this practice, which is likely contributing to the decline of Parkia biglobosa in regional agricultural landscapes. The abandonment of this practice also reveals an overlooked difference in management strategies for the two species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the seeds of the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.). It constitutes an important source of fat in food and cosmetics. Although shea oil can be marketed both locally and internationally, increasing demand worldwide for exportable products calls for their certification. Characterization of shea oil is one step towards developing its certification system. In this study, the physico-chemical characteristics of shea oil in different shea zones of Uganda were assessed. Samples of shea fruits were collected between the months of June-August 2007 in the districts of Pader, Lira, Katakwi and Arua representing Acholi, Lango, Teso, and West Nile shea zones, respectively. Seed oil was extracted by Soxhlet apparatus using n-hexane solvent and analysed for colour, refractive index, viscosity, oil content, acid value, peroxide value, saponification value, iodine value, α-tocopherols and fatty acid profile. Shea oil content, colour, refractive index and viscosity ranged from 41-54%, orange to orange-yellow, 1.670-1.690 and 2.4-2.8 cP, respectively. Acid and peroxide values ranged between 2.3-12.59 mgKOH/kg and 2.10 to 2.50 meq/kg, respectively. Saponification, iodine and α- tocopherols values were between 160 mgKOH/g and 192mgKOH/g, 39.21 I2g/100 and 41.37 I2g/100g and 26.3-44.4 mg/100g, respectively. Fatty acid profile for palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic fatty acids ranged between 6.52-8.12%, 28.65-30.94%, 55.54-57.63%, 6.18-7.79% and 0.65-0.90%, respectively. Although there was significant variation in the oil yield (P≤0.05), the physico-chemical characteristic and fatty acid profile showed no significant variation in the shea zones of Uganda (P≤0.05). The fact that physico-chemical characteristics of shea oil from the different shea zones of Uganda are comparable to other high value edible vegetable oils indicates its suitability as raw material for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. This characterization is a bench mark for monitoring the quality of shea oil from Uganda and can be used to enhance its local and international trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: African shea butter, a vegetable fat produced from the seeds of Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn. (syn. Butyrospermum parkii L.), Sapotaceae, is a unique natural product of African countries and is of great nutritional and commercial significance. The volatile compounds of various shea butter samples were analysed to investigate the influence of differences in manufacturing (boiling/roasting or combined procedures) on the headspace composition and with regard to the different origin of the samples. Volatile compounds were analysed by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry after headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME). Qualitative and semi-quantitative patterns of volatile compounds investigated in this study were composed of fatty acids degradation products, e.g. acetic and hexanoic acid, carbonyl compounds (hexanal, heptanal, trans-2-heptenal, 2,4-heptadienal), 2-pentylfurane, processing compounds like furfural as well as glycerol and residue compounds from technical processing steps including milling. Comparison of the volatile profile of 16 different shea butters from four African countries showed that processing steps including drying of kernels before producing the fat and additional roasting procedures influence shea butter headspace composition significantly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In Cameroon, the demand for hive products is growing. Honey and pollen yields are low in the country, partly because of the poor knowledge of the apicultural value of the flora. To determine the apicultural value of Dichrostachys cinerea (L.), Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. F., Persea americana Mill. and Securidaca Iongepedunculata Fres., Apis mellifera adansonii Latreille activity was observed on the flowers of these plants in Ngaoundéré, from December 2001 to May 2002 and from December 2002 to May 2003. The flowers of each plant species were prospected at least 4 days per month, between 0700 and 1800 h, for recording of the nectar and/or pollen foraging behaviour of A. m. adansonii workers, Results show that A. m. adansonii harvest nectar and pollen of V. paradoxa, P. americana and S. Iongepedunculata. The flowers of D. cinerea were visited for pollen only. The greatest number of workers foraging simultaneously on a plant varied from 34 (D. cinerea) to 1640 (P. americana). A. m. adansonii workers that visited flowers of a given plant species once remained with this nectar source throughout the observation period. Thus V. paradoxa, P. americana and S. longepedunculata could be cultivated and protected to increase honey production, whereas D. cinerea could enable bee-keepers to increase their pollen production as a hive product. During foraging, A. m. adansonii workers increased pollination possibilities of each of the plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We studied nutrient limitation and availability for soil microbial respiration after additions of glucose (C), in combination with nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in soil samples taken from parklands of Vitellaria paradoxa and Faidherbia albida. We hypothesized that in these P-fixing soils: (i) after C addition, respiration will be limited by P, but P-limitation will be lower under tree canopies; and (ii) the maximum respiration rates after adding C will be higher with than without applications of inorganic fertilizer (NPK) in the field. The study site was located in the south-Sudanese zone of Burkina Faso. Microbial respiration was measured as CO2 evolution from soil samples incubated under laboratory conditions. Two microbial growth peaks were observed after addition of C plus P to the soil samples. When P was added together with C, the initial increase in the microbial respiration rate was higher than when N and C were added, and the maximum respiration rate was also reached earlier. We conclude that P limited the initial rate of respiration. Under the tree canopy the P and N availability, was higher under both F. albida and V. paradoxa trees, than in areas beyond their canopies. NPK fertilization in the field resulted in higher soil reserves of N and P, but these nutrients had low availability in the short term. Results indicated that more P is available in forms that are immediately accessible to microorganisms under tree canopies, than outside the cover of their canopies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn., Sapotaceae family, is a characteristic species of the woody flora in savanna woodland of Africa. The fresh pulp of its fruits and the butter extracted from the kernels play an important social and economic role in rural areas. However, about 95% of the trees in natural stands are infected with Mistletoes, which are plant parasites. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of this type of parasite on the flowering and fruiting behaviour of the infected branches. For the flowering and fruiting follow-up, 46 infected branches and 46 healthy ones selected on 30 trees located in cropping areas were tagged. The infected branch diameters before and after the attachment point of the parasite and the size of the stump of the parasite were measured. The number of reproductive organs of the on-year fruit bearing shoots was counted each week during the blossom period. Pearson''s correlation coefficients were estimated to measure the association between the infected branch morphological parameters and the number of reproductive organs. General Linear Model ANOVA and Student''s paired sample test were performed to compare the reproduction index of the infected to healthy branches. The data did not show sufficient evidence that indicate negative association between the infected branch morphological parameters and the reproduction index. No significant difference was observed between the flowering and fruiting behaviour of infected branches and that of healthy ones. The possible reasons of these results are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this study we investigated the within- and between-population genetic variation using microsatellite markers and quantitative traits of the shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, an important agroforestry tree species of the Sudano–Sahelian region in Africa. Eleven populations were sampled across Mali and in northern Côte d’Ivoire. Leaf size and form and growth traits were measured in a progeny test at the nursery stage. Eight microsatellites were used to assess neutral genetic variation. Low levels of heterozygosity were recorded (1.6–3.0 alleles/locus; HE = 0.25–0.42) and the fixation index ( FIS = −0.227–0.186) was not significantly different from zero suggesting that Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is encountered in all populations sampled. Quantitative traits exhibited a strong genetic variation between populations and between families within populations. The degree of population differentiation of the quantitative traits ( QST = 0.055–0.283, QSTmean = 0.189) strongly exceeds that in eight microsatellite loci ( FST = −0.011–0.142, FSTmean = 0.047). Global and pairwise FST values were very low and not significantly different from zero suggesting agroforestry practices are amplifying gene flow ( Nm = 5.07). The population means for quantitative traits and the rainfall variable were not correlated, showing variation was not linked with this climatic cline. It is suggested that this marked differentiation for quantitative traits, independent of environmental clines and despite a high gene flow, is a result of local adaptation and human selection of shea trees. This process has induced high linkage disequilibrium between underlying loci of polygenic characters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Information on decomposition and nutrient release from leaf litter of trees in agroforestry parkland systems in Sub-Saharan Africa is scarce despite the significant role of these trees on soil fertility improvement and maintenance. Decomposition and nutrient release patterns from pruned leaves of the two most common species of parklands of the semi-arid zone of West Africa: Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn (known locally as karité) and Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. (known locally as néré), were investigated by a litter-tube study in Burkina Faso. Litter quality, methods of leaf exposure to the soil and combination with fertilizers were the factors studied. Leaves of néré had a higher nutrient content (C, N, P, Ca) and contained more ash and lignin than leaves of karité. Karité leaves had a greater content of K, cellulose and polyphenols. The pruned leaves of karité and néré showed two distinct decomposition patterns. Néré leaves decomposed more rapidly, with less than 32% of the initial weight remaining after the rainy season (4 months) while karité leaves decomposed more slowly with 43% of the leaf litter remaining after the rainy season. Addition of urea and compost did not significantly affect the rate of decomposition. Significant interaction was observed between species and method of leaf exposure for the first sampling date. Leaf litter of néré buried in soil gave the highest weight loss (34% of the initial mass in 1 month) compared with exposed leaf litter of néré and karité, and buried leaf litter of karité. Except for N, nutrient release patterns were similar for both species but the nutrient release rates were higher for néré leaves compared with karité leaves. N was immobilised in karité leaves most likely due to low N and high phenolic content. The rate of nutrient release from karité leaves followed the general trend K>P>N. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The sustainable use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is often put forward as a means for ensuring the conservation of forest vegetation types. This paper presents the results of research carried out in the savanna zone of Benin, which highlights the fact that the majority of species yielding important NTFPs are, in fact, located in the fields and fallows. The paper describes how the presence of villages affects the distribution of different vegetation types and how farmers selectively retain certain NTFP tree species, thereby creating a characteristic parkland landscape. It is suggested, however, that changes in the agricultural system and a gradual decline in the importance of NTFPs in people's lives will reduce the incentive for maintaining NTFP species and lead to the eventual loss of the parklands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]