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Brain injuries of different etiologies lead to irreversible neuronal loss and persisting neuronal deficits. New therapeutic strategies are emerging to compensate neuronal damage upon brain injury. Some of these strategies focus on enhancing endogenous generation of neurons from neural stem cells (NSCs) to substitute the dying neurons. However, the capacity of the injured brain to produce new neurons is limited, especially in cases of extensive injury. This reduced neurogenesis is a consequence of the effect of signaling molecules released in response to inflammation, which act on intracellular pathways, favoring gliogenesis and preventing recruitment of neuroblasts from neurogenic regions. Protein kinase C (PKC) is a family of intracellular kinases involved in several of these gliogenic signaling pathways. The aim of this study was to analyze the role of PKC isozymes in the generation of neurons from neural progenitor cells (NPCs) in vitro and in vivo in brain injuries. PKC inhibition in vitro , in cultures of NPC isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of postnatal mice, leads differentiation towards a neuronal fate. This effect is not mediated by classical or atypical PKC. On the contrary, this effect is mediated by novel PKCε, which is abundantly expressed in NPC cultures under differentiation conditions. PKCε inhibition by siRNA promotes neuronal differentiation and reduces glial cell differentiation. On the contrary, inhibition of PKCθ exerts a small anti-gliogenic effect and reverts the effect of PKCε inhibition on neuronal differentiation when both siRNAs are used in combination. Interestingly, in cortical brain injuries we have found expression of almost all PKC isozymes found in vitro. Inhibition of PKC activity in this type of injuries leads to neuronal production. In conclusion, these findings show an effect of PKCε in the generation of neurons from NPC in vitro , and they highlight the role of PKC isozymes as targets to produce neurons in brain lesions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Pharmacological strategies aimed to facilitate neuronal renewal in the adult brain, by promoting endogenous neurogenesis, constitute promising therapeutic options for pathological or traumatic brain lesions. We have previously shown that non-tumour-promoting PKC-activating compounds (12-deoxyphorbols) promote adult neural progenitor cell (NPC) proliferation in vitro and in vivo, enhancing the endogenous neurogenic response of the brain to a traumatic injury. Here, we show for the first time that a diterpene with a lathyrane skeleton can also activate PKC and promote NPC proliferation.Experimental Approach: We isolated four lathyranes from the latex of Euphorbia plants and tested their effect on postnatal NPC proliferation, using neurosphere cultures. The bioactive lathyrane ELAC (3,12-di-O-acetyl-8-O-tigloilingol) was also injected into the ventricles of adult mice to analyse its effect on adult NPC proliferation in vivo.Key Results: The lathyrane ELAC activated PKC and significantly increased postnatal NPC proliferation in vitro, particularly in synergy with FGF2. In addition ELAC stimulated proliferation of NPC, specifically affecting undifferentiated transit amplifying cells. The proliferative effect of ELAC was reversed by either the classical/novel PKC inhibitor Gö6850 or the classical PKC inhibitor Gö6976, suggesting that NPC proliferation is promoted in response to activation of classical PKCs, particularly PKCß. ELAC slightly increased the proportion of NPC expressing Sox2. The effects of ELAC disappeared upon acetylation of its C7-hydroxyl group.Conclusions and Implications: We propose lathyranes like ELAC as new drug candidates to modulate adult neurogenesis through PKC activation. Functional and structural comparisons between ELAC and phorboids are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]