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Studies of bribery have been heavily influenced by the cost/benefit calculation, leaving social relationship of the involved parties under-explored. We propose the norm of reciprocity as a complement theoretical lens to explain bribery exchanges and explore different types of obligation that induce bribery. Based on qualitative data from a sample of government officials in Vietnam, we found that many bribery exchanges are governed by the norm of reciprocity, i.e., obligation-based bribery. In these obligation-based bribery exchanges, the parties extend and return illegal favors based on their senses of obligation to each other, in adjacent to cost/benefit calculation. We also uncovered two types of obligation, including pragmatic and moral, and found that these types of obligation are developed through different practices. Failure to address this social element of bribery would hinder much of anti-corruption effort. The study suggests that interactions between the norm of reciprocity and wider ethical norms in governing bribery should be further addressed by both researchers and practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of bribery have not adequately considered individual psychological processes in the development of bribery–prone relationships. We propose an integration of moral disengagement and the norm of reciprocity as a theoretical lens to explain the evolvement of bribery–prone relationships. Based on qualitative data from a sample of government officials in Vietnam, we found that public officials normally go through a "calculative judgment", experience a certain level of emotional discomfort and then use rationalization strategies to decide whether to engage in a bribery–prone exchange or relationship. Furthermore, these psychological processes are distinctive in the initiation and perpetuation stages of a bribery–prone relationship. The study suggests that interactions of the norm of reciprocity and wider ethical norms in governing bribery should be further addressed by both researchers and practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable health systems should understand information as a resource which also has to be managed efficiently. Today's electronic documentation is only the mandatory first step to automatic information exchange between hospitals, physician offices, pharmacies and other participants. The K-Box is a modular system which allows different monolithic information systems to be connected and integrated by using the clinical document architecture (CDA) as the standard document exchange format. A prototype K-Box has been implemented and a trial run is scheduled. The workflow selected for the trial produces discharge summaries in CDA format. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]