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The article provides an overview of the use of computed tomography in the study of soils from the first works to the present time. The development of computed tomography in the field of hardware and methods for processing tomographic data—from the first attempts to analyze soil structure using tomographic sections of low quality to modern methods of segmentation and analysis of volumetric structures using specialized software, correlation functions and neural networks—is discussed. The purpose of the article is to show the possibilities of methods for processing tomographic data in relation to studies of soil structure and to analyze possible trends of their further development. The article presents examples from the world experience of using computed tomography for a broad variety of soils, shows various methods of data segmentation that have been used from the first studies to the recent ones. The specific terminology coined in the course of the evolution of the method and various morphometric indicators for 2D and 3D images are presented, and a forecast of the prospects for the method in the near future is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of the long-term application of fertilizers on the phosphate regime in a sod–podzolic heavy loamy soil in the western piedmont of the Ural Mountains. The study was conducted to assess the influence of the organic (manure at doses of 10 and 20 t/ha of arable land per year), mineral (mineral fertilizers in amounts equivalent to the NPK content in manure at doses of 10 and 20 t/ha per year), and organomineral (manure at doses of 5, 10, and 20 t/ha per year in combination with mineral fertilizers in amounts equivalent to the NPK content in manure) fertilization systems on the fractional composition of mineral phosphates (determined using the Ginzburg–Lebedeva method) and mobile phosphorus content in the soil. The 1-m soil layer was studied in the framework of a long-term, outdoor stationary eight-field crop rotation experiment launched in 1968. It is established that the Fe–P (45%) and Ca–P (42%) fractions predominate in the composition of mineral phosphates in the sod–podzolic soil. The long-term systematic application of fertilizers results in a significant increase in content of the most mobile fraction: calcium and ferrous phosphates (Ca–PI and Fe–P) in the soil. The organic, mineral, and organomineral fertilization systems statistically significantly increase the mobile phosphorus content in the arable layer (from 125 to 192–368 mg/kg). The mobile phosphorus reserves in the arable layer increase by 1.7–3.0 times, while those in the 1-m soil layer by 1.1–1.6 times. The maximum effect on the soil phosphate regime parameters was noted in the variant involving the application of manure at a dose of 20 t/ha per year in combination with NPK in an equivalent amount. The observed changes in the fractional composition of phosphates and mobile phosphorus content are consistent with the existing balance of this element in the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of crop rotation with different saturation with legumes and continuous grain crops (winter rye and spring barley) on the structure of prokaryotic communities and preservation of soil organic matter has been studied in a long-term stationary experiment (1977–2018) on a soddy-podzolic soil (Eutric Albic Retisol (Abruptic, Loamic, Cutanic)) of Perm oblast. Permanent black fallow and unmanaged fallow were used as reference standards. Minimum values of the coefficients of mineralization (0.37) and pedotrophicity (0.28) calculated on the basis of direct counting of microbial colonies cultivated on standard nutrient media (MPA, SAA, and SA) have been found in the unmanaged fallow soil, and maximum values of these coefficients (1.97 and 1.30, respectively) were found in the black fallow soil. Inverse relationships were found between the Corg content in the soil and the mineralization coefficient (r = –0.67; p < 0.01), as well as between the Cha : Cfa ratio and the pedotrophicity coefficient (r = –0.64; p < 0.02). It has been shown that the OM stabilization in soddy-podzolic soil depended on the type of soil use and decreased in the following sequence: unmanaged fallow > crop rotation (0–28.6–42.9% of legumes) > continuous grain crop > permanent black fallow, In the cultivated and black fallow soils, along with general decrease in the organic matte stock, its lability increased as evidenced by the Cha : Cfa ratio (0.55–0.79), which were lower than in the unmanaged fallow soil (0.96). The closest negative correlation (r = –0.81; p < 0.001) was observed between the mineralization coefficient and the Cha : Cfa ratio. It has been also shown that different uses of soddy-podzolic soil were accompanied by structural rearrangements of the actinomycetal complex selected as a model group of soil microorganisms. In particular, regular mechanical tillage and application of mineral fertilizers (N60P30K60) contributed to an increase in the species spectrum of streptomyces, a change in the frequency of occurrence and relative abundance of individual sections and series, and a change in dominant forms. The results of this study demonstrated the possibility of using microbiological indicators as biomarkers of the state of soil organic matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing classifications of soil texture are based on the sedimentation data. The aim of this article is to consider the ways to develop soil textural classification on the basis of particle-size distribution (PSD) data obtained by the laser diffraction method. A detailed comparison of PSD data obtained by the classical pipette method and the method of laser diffractometry has been performed. We have shown the reproducibility of the laser diffraction method and the effect of the oxidation stage on the soil texture class. This study is based on eight genetic soil types (overall, 32 full-profile soil pits) forming a zonal soil sequence from Podzols (Subpolar Urals) to ferrallitic soil (southwest Oceania) and differing in their mineralogical compositions, textures, and elementary pedogenetic processes. The direct use of the Kachinskii and USDA classifications with the data of the laser diffraction method leads to mistakes in determining the soil texture class in 43 and 65% of cases, respectively. The increasing complexity of recalculation, introduction of new variables, and accounting for interlaboratory errors allow us to determine correctly the texture class according to the Kachinskii and USDA classifications in no more than 70 and 72% of soil samples, respectively. The most simple and effective approach to solve the classification problem for the laser diffraction method is to calibrate existing classifications directly on the basis of data on soil samples, for which the texture class was determined by the field method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of long-term usage of various fertilization systems (organic, mineral, and organic-mineral) on the agrochemical indicators of sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil and the productivity of crops of eight-field crop rotation has been studied. Fertilization systems with high saturation (manure 20 t/ha per year, NPK in equivalents of manure 20 t/ha per year, and manure 10 t/ha per year + NPK in equivalents of manure) provided a significant increase in soil humus content (from 1.97 to 2.23–2.50%), mobile phosphorus (by 120–145 mg/kg), and exchangeable potassium (by 105–163 mg/kg) as well as increase in total, mineral, and hydrolyzable nitrogen content (by 200–360, 1.3–2.3, and 53–65 mg/kg, respectively). Cattle manure contributes to a decrease in hydrolytic acidity from 2.3 to 1.5–1.8 and to an increase in the amount of exchange bases from 18.2 to 20.8–21.9 mmol/100 g of soil. NPK treatment (in equivalents of manure 20 t/ha per year) leads to an increase in the hydrolytic acidity by 1.0 and to a decrease in the total exchangeable bases by 1.1 mmol/100 g. The maximum productivity of arable land (3800 fodder units per ha) has been obtained under fertilization systems NPK equivalent to manure 20 t/ha per year and manure 10 t/ha per year + NPK in equivalents of manure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indicators of the microbiological activity of virgin (mixed forest and forb–grassy meadow) and arable (permanent black fallow, permanent barley crop, field crop rotation, perennial legume crops) soddy-podzolic soils (Eutric Albic Retisols (Abruptic, Loamic, Cutanic)) of Perm oblast were studied. Depending on the type of land use, the content of organic carbon (bichromate oxidation method) in the soil varied from 0.78 to 1.57%; the carbon of microbial biomass (substrate-induced respiration method), from 366 to 1236 μg/g; basal respiration rate, from 1.62 to 3.13 µg C–CO2/(g h); and nitrogen-fixing capacity (acetylene method), from 11.53 to 77.18 µg C2H4/(kg h). The maximum values of the studied parameters were noted in the soil under the mixed forest, and the minimum values were in the soil of the permanent (42 yr) fallow. In the soil under forest, a low specific respiration of microbial biomass—2.5 µg C–CO2/(mg Cmic h)—was determined, which indicates the stability and maturity of this ecosystem. The most stable functioning of the microbial community among the arable soils under consideration was observed in the soil of the plot with the long-term (30 yr) cultivation of perennial legume crop (eastern galega, Galega orientalis). The contents of the soil organic matter and the microbial biomass carbon and the specific microbial respiration under galega were close to those of the soil of the forest ecosystem. The content of microbial biomass carbon and basal respiration displayed strong and moderate correlation dependences with the total content of soil organic carbon and its labile fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cascade scheme allowing two intermediate-mass isotopes to be concentrated in a single cascade above the maximum admissible concentrations at the outputs of ordinary cascades is proposed. A cascade with two flow expansions and two additional product flows is used for this. For the example of a mixture of tungsten isotopes, it is shown that the concentrations of 183W and 184W can be increased simultaneously up to 70 and 80%, respectively. In addition, additional product flows can be equal to 50–70% of the primary (end) product flow of the cascade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects from the multiyear use of grain–fallow–plow crop rotation schemes comprising legumes, permanent cultivation of winter rye and barley, and bare fallow regime on the ecological and physiological state of microbial communities in a sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil were examined in the course of a long-term, stationary experiment. Biological activity parameters of soil microbiocoenoses, including the potential intensity of CO2 emission, microbial biomass gross respiration rate, metabolic coefficient, and nitrogen fixation, were assessed. It is shown that the application of organic fertilizers (manure) in the crop rotation scheme with 28.6% legumes ensures the best humus state of the soil and a significant increase in the total nitrogen content. It is established that the share of microbial biomass (Cmic) in the total organic matter of the sod-podzolic heavy loamy soil is 1.50–3.24%. The application of mineral fertilizers results in a slight decrease in the microbial biomass carbon content and increase in the labile organic carbon content. The metabolic activity of microbial communities decreases in all long-term experimental scenarios regardless of the land use techniques. The permanent intensive cultivation of crops, either with or without crop rotation, disturbs the microbiocoenosis stability in soils of the Cis-Ural region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A review of approaches to particle-size and microaggregate-size distribution analyses applied in soil science is given. The concepts of the structural organization of soils, primary soil particles, elementary soil particles, and soil microaggregates are considered. Methodological problems, such as the preparation of soil samples for the analyses and interpretation and comparison of the results obtained by different methods, are discussed. The authors suggest the theoretical substantiation of differences between the notions of primary soil particles (soil building units) and elementary soil particles. Primary soil particles are individual mineral particles. Elementary soil particles are solid-phase products of pedogenesis represented by fragments of rocks and minerals and by organomineral and organic particles, all the components of which participate in chemical and physicochemical interactions. Special attention is paid to the existing classifications of soils according to their textures. It is suggested that the upper boundary of the clay fraction in the Russian classification should be shifted from 1 to 2 µm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characteristics of the phosphate regime of forest sod-podzolic soil is presented. It is shown that the organic phosphorus content sharply decreases down the profile starting from the podzolic horizon. The maximum content of mineral phosphates determined by the method of Sanders and Williams was found in forest litter and in the transitional eluvial horizon (A2B) and amounted to 860 and 720 mg/kg. Iron phosphates prevail in the composition of mineral phosphates and, depending on the depth of the horizon, they are 48.8-63.2% of the sum of fractions. The shares of mobile and available to plants alkali metal phosphates and various basic phosphates are 2.9-10.1 and 10.0-14.9%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors have considered methods for an alternative assessment of the dynamics of capital assets over 1992-2015, which fundamentally differ from those employed by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat), and have presented the results obtained on their basis. Losses of fixed assets incurred by the economy over this period in value terms have also been estimated. The reasons for the current crisis of the Russian economy have been shown in connection with the exhaustion of the Soviet material heritage and ways of handling the crisis have been proposed based on the reduction in household consumption and sharp increase in the share of accumulation and savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the causes of the distorted macroeconomic statistics in the Russian Federation. It introduces alternative methods for the estimation of gross domestic product (GDP) growth, and the growth and amount of fixed capital stock, and estimates them by drawing on alternative data. Our estimates for the period of 1992-2015 differ substantially from those reported by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat). According to our estimates, GDP declined by 10.2 percent, which is in sharp contrast with the official estimate reporting growth of 13.4 percent. The same is found with regard to labor productivity, for which we find a decline of 30.1 percent instead of a growth of 9.2 percent. Accordingly, the full book value of fixed capital stock shrunk by 29.2 percent instead of the officially reported 50.9 percent growth. The drop in the residual value of fixed capital is estimated at 52.6 percent. The ratio of replacement to book value of fixed capital fluctuated between 4:1 in the middle of the period and 7:1 toward the end of the period. Additionally, we estimate the amount of investment in human and physical capital necessary for producing 3 percent annual GDP growth. Financing such investment would require a decline in personal consumption by about a factor of 2, with a greater part of it falling on the better off population strata. Finally, we make suggestions regarding income redistribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil microbial flora has an important role in the life of plants, providing them with nutrients and other factors. The research was aimed at studying the effect of the long-time fertilizer application on the number and composition of the microbial flora in the soil, involved in the synthesis and decomposition of organic matter. Studies were conducted in the Vth field rotation with a crop alternation: fallow land, winter rye, summer wheat with clover under sow, clover of the first year of use, clover of the second year of use, barley, potato and oat. We studied the effectiveness of various systems of fertilizers (organic, mineral, organic and mineral). Soil of experimental field was sod-podzolic. The use of arable land without fertilizers during five crop rotations (40 years) has led to a significant reduction of humus content, exchangeable potassium, and soil acidification. The use of mineral fertilizer systems also acidifies the soil. Joint application of manure and fertilizers led to an increase humus content in the soil. All the studied fertilizer systems increased the content of mobile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium and significantly changed its biological state of soil. Long-time use of fertilizer systems, compared with the control, helped to increase the total number of microorganisms, nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria, nitrification and cellulolytic activity of soil and carbon dioxide production. On the basis of conducted studies we have established the feasibility of long-time use of organic and mineral fertilizer system with saturation of arable land with manure of 10 t/ha and with an equivalent amount of mineral fertilizers for improvement of bacteria activity involved in nitrogen regime, soil respiration, processes of decomposition and the replenishment of organic matter that increase soil fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines agrochemical properties and the nitrogen regimen of sod-podzolic soil under a mixed forest of the Cis-Urals. It has been established that the investigated soil is characterized by a highly acidic reaction throughout the profile. It has a pronounced podzolic horizon 10 cm in thickness depleted of calcium and magnesium cations. The humus content sharply decreases from 4.44% in the eluvial–humus horizon to 0.27% in the parent rock. It has been shown that the total nitrogen content decreases from 3318 mg/kg in the A1 horizon to 644 mg/kg in the A2B horizon and then changes insignificantly. The soil is characterized by a high percentage of nonhydrolyzable (64.91%) and not readily hydrolyzable nitrogen (24.81%) and a low content of mineral nitrogen assimilated by plants (2.36%) in the eluvial–humus horizon. It was revealed that the supply of nitrogen mobile forms in forest soil is high, the content of easily hydrolyzable nitrogen is 267.4 mg/kg, and content of mineral nitrogen is 73.8 mg/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, scientists investigate new more efficient materials for creating solar cells. One of such materials is thin films of barium disilicide. In this paper, we describe formation of BaSi2 films on Si(111) by layer-by-layer solid phase epitaxy and study their optical properties in visible and infrared range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses housing and communal services in Russia in terms of reproducing its material and technical base and infrastructure. The structure of housing stock in 1991-2012 has been analyzed, an alternative estimate of the size of old and dilapidated housing has been provided, and a comparison of normative and actual overhaul has been made. Public utilities are discussed in five groups (electricity, heating, water supply, sewerage and gasification). Crisis state of housing and communal services caused by inadequate funding of renovation and construction is shown. The financial resources needed to restore housing and communal services, as well as the sources and mechanisms for delivering these resources, has been calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study was made of the influence of aluminium and magnesium hydroxides on certain physicomechanical, processing, and service properties of plasticised polyvinyl chloride. It was shown that the use of a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxides leads to a considerable increase in thermal stability and to an improvement in a number of fire safety properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the results of development of railroad transportation in Russia, with an alternative assessment of the sector's material-technical base and a forecast of its development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formation of calcium silicide on three types of templates: Si(111)7 × 7, 2D Mg2Si, and 3D Mg2Si, was studied during Ca deposition at 120 °C in situ by Auger and electron energy loss spectroscopy, and by differential optical reflectance spectroscopy. A continuous Ca2Si layer is formed on 2D and 3D Mg2Si templates; but, on an atomically clean silicon surface (Si(111)7 × 7), a mixture of Ca2Si with another Ca silicide was found. The growth of a Si cap layer over the Ca silicide layers at about 100 °C studied by in situ methods demonstrated the full embedding of Ca silicide in amorphous silicon, independent of the used template. Transmission electron microscopy, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, atomic force microscopy, and electrical characterization of Schottky junctions revealed the Ca2Si and Mg2Si nanoparticles and the redistribution of Mg and Ca during the silicon cap growth and its effect on the electronic properties of the structures. Reproduction of the experiments on higher doped and better purity substrates is needed to understand better the role of Mg- and Ca-related defects, and defects of silicon generated by the growth process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do we change the Academy of Sciences and fit it into the context of the future life of Russia? The author blames the lack of success of attempts to create an efficient new system of academic science on the preservation of all the principles and defects of the Stalinist model. In his opinion, reform of the Russian Academy of Sciences will not be possible until real modernization begins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The efficiency of electrical impedance tomography, a new method of breast cancer diagnosis, is considered in this work. A total of 117 female patients (apparently healthy, patients with mastopathy, patients with benign tumors, patients with breast cancer) were tested. The method was implemented using an electrical impedance computer mammograph with special 5.6 software version. Its efficiency was estimated to be 87.39%. Of 75 patients with breast cancer, 96% were found to have degree III of risk of disease progression; 4%, degree II of disease progression risk. Additional examination was recommended. Electrical impedance mammography was demonstrated to be a noninvasive, safe, comfortable, rapid, and informative method of diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even a quick analysis of official information about the activities in the Russian railroad industry in the past decade shows that the industry has undoubtedly achieved successful results, the significance of which goes far beyond the transport sector. It was as long ago as the late 1920s when S.G. Strumilin wrote that the transportation industry must develop faster than the entire economy. If the transportation resources are not increased, the industry will not be a powerful factor able to encourage industrial development, but will rather restrain it greatly [1]. This study answers the question regarding to what extent the positive results of recent years have allowed to overcome the previous negative inertia and, what is more important, whether the industry has managed to increase its transportation resources and create infrastructural facilities to develop the national economy. In order to find answers, the material and technical base and financial position of the country's railroad industry are assessed and its prospects for development are evaluated. The main calculations are based on data for 2006 and 2007, i.e., the years that in many respects appeared to be the most successful period in the post-Soviet history of the national railroad industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the results of the pension reform undertaken in Russia, with particular focus on the mechanism that involves the creation of pension resources. It says that the pension reform failed to make efficient pension funds, and the private sector holding the pension insurance did not gain the public trust. It also mentions that the pension system of Russia showed inefficiency however, this is not a reason to change it.

The design of a facility for studying luminescence of cryogenic liquids (nitrogen and helium) is described. Luminescence is excited by ∼0.573-MeV β particles and 0.656-MeV positrons emitted by a radioactive source based on 64Cu radionuclide, which is immersed in a liquid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geometric parameters and relative stability of γ- and β-loop conformers of oligomers based on alanine were determined by the Kohn-Sham method (the B3LYP/6–31+G** approximation). The three-dimensional architecture of the β-folded structure and protein α-helix was reproduced using Kohn-Sham calculations with periodic boundary conditions. The Bader quantum-topological molecular structure theory was used to reveal and quantitatively characterize noncovalent interatomic interactions in the secondary structures of model peptides under consideration. Earlier unnoticed additional noncovalent interactions stabilizing the structures under consideration were revealed. In β-loops, these are C-H⋯O and H⋯H interactions, and, in antiparallel β-folded structures, these are weak Cβ-H⋯H-Cβ interactions between side chains. Additional weak bonding interaction between C=O groups in position i and H-Cβ groups in position i + 3 was revealed for the protein α-helix; this interaction is usually ignored in amino acid folding simulations with the use of classic force fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alanine (Ala)-based cluster models of C5, C7, and C10 H-bonds are studied at the DFT/B3LYP level. CPMD/BLYP simulations of the infinite polyalanine α-helix (C13 H-bond) and the two-stranded β-sheets are performed. Combined use of frequency shifts and electron-density features enable us to detect and describe quantitatively the non-covalent interactions (H-bonds) defining the intrinsic properties of Ala-based secondary structures. The energies of the primary N&bond;H$\cdots $O H-bonds are decreasing in the following way: C13 > C5 ≥ C7 > C10. The energies of the secondary N&bond;H$\cdots $O, N-H$\cdots $N, and H$\cdots $H interactions are comparable to those of the primary H-bonds (∼4.5 kcal/mol). Side chain–backbone C&bond;H$\cdots $O interaction is found to be the weakest non-covalent interaction in the considered species. Its energy is ∼0.5 kcal/mol in the infinite polyalanine α-helix. Quantum-topological electron-density analysis is found to be a powerful tool for the detection of secondary non-covalent interactions (C&dbond;O$\cdots $H&bond;C and H$\cdots $H) and bifurcated H-bonds, while the frequency shift study is useful for the identification and characterization of primary or secondary H-bonds of the N&bond;H$\cdots $O type. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current state of assessment of nuclear and thermal power plant toxic effects on zooplankton entrained in the water supply hardware is reviewed. Common research approaches and their inherent problems are considered and particular emphasis is given to specific features of cooling reservoirs and their ecosystems. Complex analysis of zooplankton mortality in various conditions and areas of a cooling reservoir is presented. Our data from field and laboratory studies allow major factors resulting in damage to and mortality of zooplankton to be determined and suggest that, among all plankton species in the cooling reservoir, zooplankton is the most sensitive group to entrainment-induced stress. Our results clearly demonstrate that both field observations and laboratory studies are required to reliably estimate power plant impact on zooplankton and to predict mortality of organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public catering in the Soviet period is compared to that at present. Official statistics and alternative assessments of the industry’s financial results in 2001 and its dynamics over the period 2000–2005 are presented. The gross value added of public catering is updated on the basis of the revealed turnover underestimation. The industry’s shadow incomes are shown; a case for raising tax payments is made; and the possible size of increased tax payments is shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the official and alternative statistical estimates of the financial performance of wholesale trade in 2001 and its dynamics in 2000–2004. The causes of the sector’s high profitability and the rise in turnover in recent years are ascertained. A comparative study of wholesale trade in the Soviet era and the present is made and the functions of wholesale in today’s Russia and economically advanced countries are contrasted. The negative role of wholesale trade in the present economy of Russia is demonstrated, which stems from the special characteristics of the functions it performs. The case is made for a sharp increase in the sector’s taxation and the amount of its possible tax load is calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The value of a locally frozen magnetic field in a region with a diameter of 0.5 mm in a 0.5-mm-thick YBa2Cu3O7 − x plate was investigated as a function of the excitation field (to 2 × 104 Am−1), plate cooling mode (in the absence or presence of a field; i.e., zero-field cooling (ZFC) or field coupling (FC)), and local demagnetizing field. Analysis of the measurement results in the noted range of excitation fields showed the following: (i) the dependence on the excitation field for the ZFC mode is explained by the local inhomogeneity of critical currents of weak links in the ceramic Josephson medium and is limited by their maximum value at the temperature of the experiment (77 K); (ii) the dependence on the excitation field for the FC mode contains a portion of the magnetic phase transition from the frozen current structure, typical of the initial portion of the dependence, to the current structure characteristic of the ZFC freezing mode, and is limited by this transition; and (iii) the dependence on the demagnetizing field for the ZFC mode can be explained by the stable coexistence (without annihilation) of microscopic current loops with opposite current directions in the ceramics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Official statistical figures of the availability and utilization of fixed capital in the Russian economy are reviewed. The reasons for unauthenticity of these figures are revealed. An alternative estimate of the macroeconomic indicators of capital consumption and accumulation is made based on a comparison of wear and tear and investment volumes. An estimate of the reproduction of fixed capital in 2001 is made by which the amount of consumption is much in excess of accumulation. The case is made for increasing investment in fixed capital and the scale of increase is calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]