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Evaluation of harvest data remains one of the most important sources of information in the development of strategies to manage regional populations of white-tailed deer. While descriptive statistics and simple linear models are utilized extensively, the use of artificial neural networks for this type of data analyses is unexplored. Linear model was compared to Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) models with Levenberg–Marquardt (L-M), Bayesian Regularization (BR) and Scaled Conjugate Gradient (SCG) learning algorithms, to evaluate the relative accuracy in predicting antler beam diameter and length using age and dressed body weight in white-tailed deer. Data utilized for this study were obtained from male animals harvested by hunters between 1977–2009 at the Berry College Wildlife Management Area. Metrics for evaluating model performance indicated that linear and ANN models resulted in close match and good agreement between predicted and observed values and thus good performance for all models. However, metrics values of Mean Absolute Error and Root Mean Squared Error for linear model and the ANN-BR model indicated smaller error and lower deviation relative to the mean values of antler beam diameter and length in comparison to other ANN models, demonstrating better agreement of the predicted and observed values of antler beam diameter and length. ANN-SCG model resulted in the highest error within the models. Overall, metrics for evaluating model performance from the ANN model with BR learning algorithm and linear model indicated better agreement of the predicted and observed values of antler beam diameter and length. Results of this study suggest the use of ANN generated results that are comparable to Linear Models of harvest data to aid in the development of strategies to manage white-tailed deer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Although many aspects of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) biology and physiology have been studied thoroughly, few studies have examined deer perception. We obtained a behavioral measure of light-adapted visual sensitivity based on performance of 7 deer in forced-choice discrimination tests. We compared intensity thresholds at the short and long wavelengths of their purported visual spectrum. Utilizing an automated training device, we trained deer to discriminate between lit and unlit light-emitting diode (LED) lights expressing monochromatic wavelengths, and recorded performance across a series of decreasing intensities for each wavelength until deer could no longer discriminate the light stimulus. We regressed a best-fit logistic function to each deer's performance as intensity decreased at a single wavelength, demarcated the sensitivity threshold to that wavelength, and compared deer's sensitivity threshold across wavelengths. Our behavior-based sensitivity measurements agreed with previous estimates of white-tailed deer's cone photoreceptor sensitivity. We confirm that these cone photoreceptors contribute to deer behavior, and that deer have a greater perceptual sensitivity to shorter wavelengths and lower sensitivity to longer wavelengths. Our findings also suggest the deer have some sensitivity to ultraviolet light. The visual perception of the white-tailed deer is specialized for sensitivity during their crepuscular patterns, enables detection of predators along their horizon, and is well-adapted for a prey species. © 2014 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many aspects of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) biology and physiology have been studied thoroughly, few studies have confirmed deer cognitive perception, partly because of the difficulty of efficiently training sufficient numbers of deer to respond behaviorally in controlled experiments. We present a system that trains white-tailed deer to associate a supra-threshold, white-light stimulus with a food reward through operant conditioning techniques. The 'deer training apparatus' (DTA) automatically dispenses food, rings a start buzzer, randomly assigns a stimulus light over 1 of 2 troughs, and registers a deer's choice. If a deer goes to a trough with the light illuminated, then a correct choice is registered. All 6 deer tested met successful training criteria by Day 19, and a performance of 88.2% ± 3.9% correct choices by Day 25. We conclude that the DTA presents an effective and efficient way of training white-tailed deer, and provides an experimental platform for future research on behavior, perception, and preference. Thus, the DTA should be useful to researchers evaluating behavioral response of deer, and possibly other wild and domestic species, to various visual and auditory stimuli. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although roadside fences have been proven effective at reducing deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs), information on how these fences alter deer behavior is lacking. We evaluated the effects of a traditional and a novel fencing design, constructed alongside a roadway, on movements and home ranges of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus). From January to April 2009, we fitted 14 adult female deer with Global Positioning System collars, programmed to collect ≥24 locations/day. In June 2009 we constructed a 3.2-km fence that included a 1.6-km section of 2.4-m vertical-wire fence and a 1.6-km section of a prototype outrigger fence (i.e., 0.6 m, shade-cloth [50% opaque plastic sheeting] on a 45° outrigger angled toward the deer attached to the top of a 1.2 m, vertical-wire fence). We retrieved collars between January and March 2010. We compared home ranges, fence crossings, and fence circumventions among deer that encountered the outrigger and 2.4-m fences as well as for deer that encountered neither fence (i.e., controls), before and after fence construction. Actual crossings of the fence area were reduced, postconstruction, by 98% and 90% for the 2.4 m and outrigger treatment groups, respectively, suggesting that the fences were sufficiently effective to simulate how deer respond to roadside barriers. Deer with pretreatment home ranges that approached or encompassed the fence endings maintained a high degree of site fidelity by circumventing the endings. This study highlights the importance of incorporating information on deer behavior and resource usage into DVC-reduction strategies. If these factors are not accounted for, DVC frequency will likely stay the same, or increase, near fence endings. Thus, roadside fences should likely end at natural barriers to deer movements (i.e., heavy development) or incorporate some means of safe crossing into their endings. © 2011 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the comparison between fencing designs and their effectiveness to exclude female white-tailed deer from roadways. It evaluates the efficacy of these fencing designs in restricting movements of confined deer and analyzes the number of their successful and failed fence crossings. It notes that the outrigger fence angled toward the deer is an effective design having the potential to deter the animal from entering the roadway.

We evaluated efficacy of sound as a deterrent for reducing deer (Odocoileus spp.)-vehicle collisions by observing behavioral responses of free-ranging white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) to pure-tone sounds within their documented range of hearing. Behavior of freeranging deer within 10 m of roadways was not altered in response to a moving automobile fitted with a sound-producing device and speakers that produced 5 sound treatments documented to be within the hearing range of white-tailed deer. Many commercially available, vehicle-mounted auditory deterrents (i.e., deer whistles) are purported to emit continuous pure-tone sounds similar to those we tested. However, our data suggest that deer whistles are likely not effective in altering deer behavior in a manner that would prevent deer-vehicle collisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic knowledge of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hearing can improve understanding of deer behavior and may assist in the development of effective deterrent strategies. Using auditory brainstem response testing, we determined that white-tailed deer hear within the range of frequencies we tested, between 0.25-30 kilohertz (kHz), with best sensitivity between 4-8 kHz. The upper limit of human hearing lies at about 20 kHz, whereas we demonstrated that white-tailed deer detected frequencies to at least 30 kHz. This difference suggests that research on the use of ultrasonic (frequencies 20 kHz) auditory deterrents is justified as a possible means of reducing deer-human conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated the behavioral responses of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to 4 colors of wildlife warning reflectors (red, white, blue-green, and amber) that are purported to reduce the incidence of deer-vehicle collisions. We observed white-tailed deer behaviors relative to roads before and after installation of wildlife warning reflectors using a forward-looking infrared camera during 90 observation nights. We concluded that wildlife warning reflectors were ineffective in changing deer behavior such that deer-vehicle collisions might be prevented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]