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This study describes the characteristics of forest fragments occupied by a Critically Endangered endemic Peruvian primate, the San Martín titi monkey, Plecturocebus oenanthe (Pitheciidae; Platyrrhini). We selected 45 fragments; 20 had already been surveyed in 2015 by the Proyecto Mono Tocón (six of these had been further split, resulting in 27 fragments); an additional 18 fragments were randomly selected from satellite images. We surveyed these fragments for the presence of P. oenanthe and determined characteristics of the fragments (size, shape, tree density, canopy height) and of the landscape (distance to nearest fragment and road). We also examined changes in the number of fragments and in forest cover between 2015 and 2019. We encountered P. oenanthe in all surveyed fragments except for the smallest one (0.2 ha). Our findings suggest that P. oenanthe can persist in fragments with a wide range of characteristics, particularly with regard to size and tree density. Unless fragmentation continues and overall forest cover in the area diminishes further, the species may be able to persist even in a fragmented landscape, provided that the matrix allows for movements between fragments. However, persistence might not be long-term if groups are not reproductive, populations become too small, and reduced gene flow results in inbreeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

King Carlos III of Spain supported numerous scientific and intellectual enterprises in Spanish America during the eighteenth century. One was the compilation, between about 1782 and 1785, of a vast 'paper museum', the 'Codex Martínez Compañón' or 'Codex Trujillo del Perú', in the province of Trujillo, Peru. There, the Bishop of Trujillo, Baltasar Jaime Martínez Compañón, directed the preparation of hundreds of coloured illustrations of the people, geography and natural history of the region. Included were 17 images of mammals classified as primates from Peruvian forests. In 1789, this compilation was shipped to Madrid where some of these illustrations were copied into an impressive oil painting by Louis Thiébaut under the direction of the bishop's nephew, José Ignacio de Lecuanda. This painting, the Quadro de la Historia Natural Civil y Geográfica del Reyno del Perú (1799), not only included images of almost a dozen primates, but also accompanying descriptions. Forming part of an unusually large painting, these depictions of New World primates served as channels for ideas about exoticism and potential European initiatives in the forested regions of Spanish America before independence. This paper discusses the identification of the primates and some other mammals portrayed in both Martínez Compañón's Codex and in the Quadro del Perú of Lecuanda and Thiébaut. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise: Vertical stratification is a key feature of tropical forests and plant–frugivore interactions. However, it is unclear whether equally strong patterns of vertical stratification exist for plant–nectarivore interactions and, if so, which factors drive these patterns. Further, nectar‐inhabiting bacteria, acting as "hidden players" in plant–nectarivore interactions, might be vertically stratified, either in response to differences among strata in microenvironmental conditions or to the nectarivore community serving as vectors. Methods: We observed visitations by a diverse nectarivore community to the liana Marcgravia longifolia in a Peruvian rainforest and characterized diversity and community composition of nectar‐inhabiting bacteria. Unlike most other plants, M. longifolia produces inflorescences across forest strata, enabling us to study effects of vertical stratification on plant–nectarivore interactions without confounding effects of plant species and stratum. Results: A significantly higher number of visits were by nectarivorous bats and hummingbirds in the midstory than in the understory and canopy, and the visits were strongly correlated to flower availability and nectar quantity and quality. Trochiline hummingbirds foraged across all strata, whereas hermits remained in the lower strata. The Shannon diversity index for nectar‐inhabiting bacterial communities was highest in the midstory. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that vertical niche differentiation in plant–nectarivore interactions seems to be partly driven by resource abundance, but other factors such as species‐specific preferences of hummingbirds, likely caused by competition, play an important role. We conclude that vertical stratification is an important driver of a species' interaction niche highlighting its role for promoting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sakis (genus Pithecia) are frugivorous primates with a preference for seeds that complete their diet with leaves and insects. Fruit pulp and seeds are known to have different nutritional characteristics that change during the process of ripening. The consumption of seeds can be an adaptation to changes in resource availability, as unripe seeds are a more steadily available resource than ripe pulp or young leaves. Here, we present the first study of the feeding ecology of monk sakis (Pithecia monachus). We investigated dietary composition and identified important feeding plants in a seasonally flooded forest within the Área de Conservación Regional Comunal Tamshiyacu–Tahuayo in Peruvian Amazonia. Throughout 20 months, we followed groups of monk sakis by foot and canoe and recorded 459 feeding events. Seeds were the most frequently consumed food item (49%), followed by pulp (mesocarp, pericarp or aril; 25%) and arthropods (22%). Leaves, bark, and flowers were ingested only sporadically. The importance of ripe seeds and arthropods in the diet of the monk sakis differed from other studies: we recorded the consumption of mostly ripe seeds and the share of arthropods was relatively high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Larger animals are assumed to ingest larger seeds and consume larger fruits, but empirical studies reveal inconsistent trends between body mass and the average size of fruits and seeds ingested. Furthermore, no studies have explored seed size relationships with morphological traits, such as skull dimensions. Such characteristics might provide more reliable estimates of ingestion ability and allow for accurate predictions of seed dispersal capacity in species for which we lack empirical data, especially extinct species. To determine whether (i) mammalian skull dimensions are better predictors of the maximum size of ingested seeds and fruits, compared to body mass and (ii) body mass are the better predictors of mean fruit and seed sizes, we studied these relationships across three mammalian orders: Chiroptera, Primates and Carnivora.We collected novel data on skull dimensions and collated available data on body mass and maximum and mean sizes of ingested fruits and seeds for mammals (N = 100) across the Neotropics, Asia, Africa and Madagascar. We explored the relationships between anatomical traits and fruit and seed sizes of extant species and made predictions for five extinct species.Our results revealed that body mass and skull dimensions are essential determinants of ingested fruit and seed size in mammals. The latter traits can generate predictions for extinct species, especially coronoid height and maximum jaw gape. Nevertheless, body mass predicted larger ingested fruits and seeds than skull dimensions and explained a greater part of the variance for both maximum and mean sizes in our dataset.Our results show how body mass and cranial anatomy constrain seed size and reinforce the importance of maintaining functional diversity in seed dispersers to maintain tropical forest structure. We also show that scientists can use morphological characteristics to predict the seed dispersal potential of extinct mammals allowing better inferences on past and future consequences of frugivore extinctions within tropical forests. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The question whether or not tropical lianas infest host trees randomly or they exert host selection has implications for the structure and dynamics of tropical rainforests, particularly if colonization by lianas impacts host fitness. In this study, we present evidence that the Neotropical liana Marcgravia longifolia (Marcgraviaceae) infests host trees non-randomly. We identified host trees to species or genus level for 87 of the 100 M. longifolia individuals found in the study area of the Estación Biológica Quebrada Blanco (EBQB) in north-eastern Peruvian Amazonia. Data on host availability were taken from two 1-ha plots sampled at EBQB as part of a large-scale tree inventory in western Amazonia. Of the total of 88 tree genera with two or more individuals present in the inventory, 18 were represented amongst hosts. Host genera with a probability of colonization higher than expected by chance were Eschweilera (Lecythidaceae), Pouteria (Sapotaceae), Brosimum (Moraceae), and Hymenaea (Fabaceae). These findings suggest that M. longifolia exerts some level of host selectivity, but the mechanisms for this are completely unknown. Given the large number of animal species (41 bird species, three primate species) that are dispersing the seeds of M. longifolia and that have diverse ecological strategies, directed seed dispersal is unlikely to account for the observed patterns of host infestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tamarins, small Neotropical primates of the genera Saguinus and Leontocebus, have a mainly frugivorous-faunivorous diet. While consuming the pulp of a high diversity of fruit species, they also swallow seeds and void them intact, thus acting as seed dispersers. Here we compare different aspects of the seed dispersal ecology of tamarins with that of large Neotropical primates from the genera Ateles (spider monkeys) and Lagothrix (woolly monkeys). Due to their small body size, tamarins disperse seeds of a smaller size range, fewer seeds per defecation, and seeds from a smaller number of different plant species per defecation compared to these atelines. We discuss whether tamarin seed dispersal is redundant or complementary to seed dispersal by atelines. On the level of plant species, our comparisons suggest that redundancy or complementarity depends on the plant species concerned. On the habitat level, seed dispersal by tamarins and large New World primates is probably complementary. Particularly, since tamarins are capable of persisting in disturbed forests and near human settlements, they are more likely to contribute to the natural regeneration of such areas than larger primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saguinus mystax (Spix, 1823), a callitrichid (tamarin and marmoset family) commonly called the mustached tamarin, is 1 of 12 species in the genus Saguinus. In this large callitrichid (450–650 g), females are slightly heavier than males. It occurs in Brazil and Peru, south of Rio Amazonas from Río Ucayali in the west to Rio Purus in the east, in primary and secondary tierra firma rainforests. The diet consists of fruit pulp, insects, gums, nectar, and small vertebrates. It lives in groups of 3–10 individuals with a male-biased adult sex ratio and has a cooperative breeding system. In areas of sympatry, S. mystax forms mixed-species groups with saddle-back tamarins, Leontocebus. Although captured for the pet trade and sporadically hunted, it is considered "Least Concern" (LC) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peru has the highest diversity of members of the tamarin genus Leontocebus (Callitrichidae). However, for a number of taxa from this genus the distributional ranges are still not well known. In this paper we provide evidence for the extension of the southern range of Leontocebus fuscicollis fuscicollis to the right bank of the Río Abujao, south of which it is replaced by Leontocebus weddelli weddelli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This correction notice addresses an error in an article titled "Owl monkeys: biology, adaptive radiation, and behavioral ecology of the only nocturnal primate in the Americas." The correction clarifies that genetic analyses place Aotus, the owl monkey, as either a sister taxon to the family Cebidae or to the family Callitrichidae. The correction also includes a note from the publisher, Springer Nature, stating their neutrality regarding jurisdictional claims and institutional affiliations. The correction was reported by Eckhard W. Heymann. [Extracted from the article]

This paper reviews the advances made in the study of olfactory communication in New World primates (Platyrrhini) made since the last major review in 2006, particularly the findings on scent-marking. Relatively few papers specifically addressed this topic, and some others include pertinent information collected during studies addressing other research questions. The majority of papers stems from research on callitrichids and night monkeys. Results of the latter studies refute my earlier hypothesis on a link between sex-biased scent marking and the relative importance of paternal care, but emphasize the need for using sexual selection as a theoretical framework for analyzing olfactory communication. The only two papers that examined scent marking in the context of territoriality and intergroup relations rejected a territorial function, but this remains a debated issue. I suggest to exploit the quasi-experimental condition created by habitat fragmentation to address this question. Portable Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) devices have been employed for the first time to examine the chemical composition of scent-gland secretions of wild New World primates. Expanding this technology to examine scent marks in situ and how their chemical profile and thus information content changes after deposition will be a promising approach for the future. Finally, I propose to integrate the theoretical framework developed by Carthey and co-workerson the role of microbes for the mediation of olfactory communication into studies of New World primate scent marking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the relationship between primates and palms, specifically the claims made regarding the coevolutionary dynamics of primate color vision systems and palm fruit colors. Topics include the low number of palm species dispersed by primates and the limited interaction between primates and palms in Africa; and the proposed co-diversification scenario between primates and palms and suggest a need for further examination of their role in primate diets and seed dispersal.

Differential habitat use in sympatric species can provide insight into how behavior relates to morphological differences and as a general model for the study of biological adaptations to different functional demands. In Amazonia, closely related sympatric tamarins of the genera Saguinus and Leontocebus regularly form stable mixed-species groups, but exhibit differences in foraging height and locomotor activity. To test the hypothesis that two closely related species in a mixed-species group prefer different modes of leaping regardless of the substrates available, we quantified leaping behavior in a mixed-species group of Saguinus mystax and Leontocebus nigrifrons. We studied leaping behavior in relation to support substrate type and foraging height in the field for 5 months in the Amazonian forest of north-eastern Peru. Saguinus mystax spent significantly more time above 15 m (79%) and used predominantly horizontal and narrow supports for leaping. Leontocebus nigrifrons was predominantly active below 10 m (87%) and exhibited relatively more trunk-to-trunk leaping. Both species preferred their predominant leaping modes regardless of support type availability in the different forest layers. This indicates that the supports most commonly available in each forest layer do not determine the tamarins' leaping behavior. This apparent behavioral adaptation provides a baseline for further investigation into how behavioral differences are reflected in the morphology and species-specific biomechanics of leaping behavior and establishes callitrichid primates as a model well-suited to the general study of biological adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fur rubbing, i.e. rubbing a substance or an object into the pelage, has been described in numerous Neotropical primate species, including species of titi monkeys, but it seems to be a rare behaviour. Here we describe a fur rubbing event in a wild coppery titi monkey (Plecturocebuscupreus) with Psychotria sp. (Rubiaceae) leaves observed and videotaped during a field study on vigilance behaviour between September–December 2019 in the Peruvian Amazon. Plants of the genus Psychotria contain a great diversity of secondary metabolites and are often used in traditional medicine. We suggest that the fur rubbing was an act of self-medication. This is the first record of fur rubbing in coppery titi monkeys in almost 4400 h of observation accumulated over more than 20 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The American Museum of Natural History houses the skin of a tamarin (AMNH 98303) labelled as Saguinus fuscicollis tripartitus. However, the specimen does not match the phenotype of this taxon, now named Leontocebus tripartitus, nor that of any other known species or subspecies of Leontocebus. In this note, we review past taxonomic revisions of the genus Saguinus – revisions that were largely driven by the contentious species or subspecies status of the golden-mantled saddleback tamarin S. fuscicollis tripartitus – and compare the phenotype of AMNH 98303 with those of other tamarins in the same genus to discuss the possible status of this specimen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ants are the dominant group of animals in many habitats, particularly in tropical rainforests. High abundance and formation of large colonies convert them into a potential food source for a broad spectrum of animals. In this paper we review myrmecovory (consumption of ants) in Neotropical primates. Myrmecovory has been reported from 57 taxa (species + subspecies) out of 217 species of Neotropical primates, representing 18 out of 22 genera. The proportion of ants in the animal portion of the diet is highest amongst members of the genera Cebus, Sapajus, Cheracebus and Plecturocebus, but generally low in callitrichids, large pitheciids (Cacajao, Chiropotes) and atelids. Ants from seven subfamilies of Formicidae (out of 13 subfamilies found in the Neotropics) are consumed, including taxa with and without functional sting and with varying other defences. Foraging technics employed in myrmecovory range from picking ants from open substrates to extractive foraging involving the destruction of ant nests or shelters, but tool use has not been reported. We conclude that myrmecovory is widespread amongst Neotropical primates but on average contributes only a minor proportion of the diet. The diversity of foraging technics employed and lack of tool use in Neotropical primate myrmecovory, even for ants with functional stings and aggressive biting, suggests that tool use for myrmecovory in hominids has not evolved in response to ant defences but is a consequence of enhanced cognitive skills that evolved under other selection pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Vertical stratification (VS) is a widespread phenomenon in plant and animal communities in forests and a key factor for structuring their species richness and biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests. The organisms composing forest communities adjust and shape the complex three‐dimensional structure of their environment and inhabit a large variety of niches along the vertical gradient of the forest. Even though the degree of VS varies among different vertebrate groups, patterns of compositional stratification can be observed across taxa. Communities of birds, bats, primates, and non‐flying small mammals are vertically stratified in terms of abundance, species richness, diversity, and community composition. Frugivorous members of these taxa play important roles as seed dispersers and forage on fruit resources that, in turn, vary in quantity and nutritional value along the vertical gradient. As a consequence, plant–seed disperser interaction networks differ among strata, which is manifested in differences in interaction frequencies and the degree of mutual specialization. In general, the canopy stratum is composed of strong links and generalized associations, while the lower strata comprise weaker links and more specialized interactions. Investigating the VS of communities can provide us with a better understanding of species habitat restrictions, resource use, spatial movement, and species interactions. Especially in the face of global change, this knowledge will be important as these characteristics can imply different responses of species and taxa at a fine spatial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanisms of conflict resolution, e.g. reconciliation, have been reported from a number of group-living animals, particularly primates. However, whether or not conflict resolution occurs in the cooperatively breeding callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins) remains a matter of debate. Captive studies provide contrasting evidence for the occurrence of reconciliation, and no evidence has been previously available for wild groups. Here, I present data on post-conflict behaviour in wild moustached tamarins, Saguinus mystax, which suggest that reconciliation occurs among wild callitrichids, too. However, reconciliation seems to occur very rarely among these primates, probably due to the generally peaceful nature of their social relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Threats to biodiversity are well documented. However, to effectively conserve species and their habitats, we need to know which conservation interventions do (or do not) work. Evidence-based conservation evaluates interventions within a scientific framework. The Conservation Evidence project has summarized thousands of studies testing conservation interventions and compiled these as synopses for various habitats and taxa. In the present article, we analyzed the interventions assessed in the primate synopsis and compared these with other taxa. We found that despite intensive efforts to study primates and the extensive threats they face, less than 1% of primate studies evaluated conservation effectiveness. The studies often lacked quantitative data, failed to undertake postimplementation monitoring of populations or individuals, or implemented several interventions at once. Furthermore, the studies were biased toward specific taxa, geographic regions, and interventions. We describe barriers for testing primate conservation interventions and propose actions to improve the conservation evidence base to protect this endangered and globally important taxon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixed‐species animal groups (MSGs) are widely acknowledged to increase predator avoidance and foraging efficiency, among other benefits, and thereby increase participants' fitness. Diversity in MSG composition ranges from two to 70 species of very similar or completely different phenotypes. Yet consistency in organization is also observable in that one or a few species usually have disproportionate importance for MSG formation and/or maintenance. We propose a two‐dimensional framework for understanding this diversity and consistency, concentrating on the types of interactions possible between two individuals, usually of different species. One axis represents the similarity of benefit types traded between the individuals, while the second axis expresses asymmetry in the relative amount of benefits/costs accrued. Considering benefit types, one extreme represents the case of single‐species groups wherein all individuals obtain the same supplementary, group‐size‐related benefits, and the other extreme comprises associations of very different, but complementary species (e.g. one partner creates access to food while the other provides vigilance). The relevance of social information and the matching of activities (e.g. speed of movement) are highest for relationships on the supplementary side of this axis, but so is competition; relationships between species will occur at points along this gradient where the benefits outweigh the costs. Considering benefit amounts given or received, extreme asymmetry occurs when one species is exclusively a benefit provider and the other a benefit user. Within this parameter space, some MSG systems are constrained to one kind of interaction, such as shoals of fish of similar species or leader–follower interactions in fish and other taxa. Other MSGs, such as terrestrial bird flocks, can simultaneously include a variety of supplementary and complementary interactions. We review the benefits that species obtain across the diversity of MSG types, and argue that the degree and nature of asymmetry between benefit providers and users should be measured and not just assumed. We then discuss evolutionary shifts in MSG types, focusing on drivers towards similarity in group composition, and selection on benefit providers to enhance the benefits they can receive from other species. Finally, we conclude by considering how individual and collective behaviour in MSGs may influence both the structure and processes of communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of a grooming claw on the second toe is a characteristic of Strepsirrhini and tarsiers. There is also some evidence for the presence of a grooming claw in Platyrrhini. Here we report qualitative findings from different species of saki monkeys, genus Pithecia , on the presence of modified nails on the second toe. These observations suggest that a grooming claw or a grooming claw-like nail occurs in different Pithecia species, but that it does not consistently occur in all individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The Congo Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus has experienced a severe population breakdown in recent decades. The rainforests of the Korup region in Southwest Cameroon may harbour a large population of this species, but density and population estimates from this area remain controversial. Before the 2016 breeding season, we surveyed Grey Parrots along transects (621.1 km survey effort) in three adjacent landscape types: primary forest in Korup National Park (KNP), smallholder agroforestry matrix (AFM), and industrial oil palm plantation (OPP). We also collected information on the trees used for nesting, feeding and roosting. Using Distance analysis, we estimated relatively low densities of stationary flocks, ranging from 0.30 ind./km2 in KNP, over 0.82 ind./km2 in OPP to 2.70 ind./km2 in the AFM. Parrots were observed feeding or roosting in 17 tree species, of which 15 were located in AFM alone. Feeding was most often observed on cultivated Elaeis guineensis and Dacryodes edulis , but never in maize. The detected parrot densities probably reflect declines within the period 2008–2016, suggesting that the species' recent IUCN uplisting to 'Endangered' and transfer to CITES Appendix I was indeed justified. Our results also suggest that traditional smallholder agroforestry may play a role in habitat conservation strategies, since these forms of cultivation may maintain important breeding and feeding opportunities for Congo Grey Parrots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting pressure, and human–wildlife conflict threaten the survival of primates across Africa. Particularly dramatic forest losses have occurred outside protected areas in the Guinean forest–savannah transition zone. Using the Boé region, Guinea-Bissau, as a case study, we investigated whether and how this rapidly humanized mosaic of wooded savannah, gallery forests and cropland could sustain viable primate populations. We conducted line transect surveys and reconnaissance (recce) walks to assess populations of one Critically Endangered (chimpanzee Pan troglodytes verus), one Endangered (Temminck's red colobus Piliocolobus badius temminckii), one Vulnerable (king colobus Colobus polykomos), and one Near Threatened (sooty mangabey Cercocebus atys) arboreal primates across a 104 km2 section of Boé in the dry season of 2016. Using the standing crop nest count method we estimated a relatively high chimpanzee density (0.77 individuals per km2, 95% CI 0.45–1.34). An assessment of habitat selection showed that chimpanzees prefer semi-dense forest and fallow fields with remnant old trees for nesting, and locations close to rivers. The other primates studied occurred in extremely low densities and were largely restricted to gallery forests. Our results indicate a need for immediate action to ensure the long-term survival of the primate community in the human-dominated landscape of Boé. Our recommendations include action to maintain hunting pressure at a low level, restoring and protecting gallery forests, introducing incentives for farmers for forest protection and primate-friendly practices, and extending the conservation programme to all arboreal primates in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed dispersal distance (SDD) critically influences the survival of seedlings, spatial patterns of genetic diversity within plant populations, and gene flow among plant populations. In animal‐dispersed species, foraging behavior and movement patterns determine SDD. Direct observations of seed dispersal events by animals in natural plant populations are mostly constrained by the high mobility and low visibility of seed dispersers. Therefore, diverse alternative methods are used to estimate seed dispersal distance, but direct comparisons of these approaches within the same seed dispersal system are mostly missing.We investigated two plant species with different life history traits, Leonia cymosa and Parkia panurensis, exclusively dispersed by two tamarin species, Saguinus mystax and Leontocebus nigrifrons. We compared SDD estimates obtained from direct observations, genetic identification of mother plants from seed coats, parentage analysis of seedlings/saplings, and phenomenological and mechanistic modeling approaches.SDD derived from the different methods ranged between 158 and 201 m for P. panurensis and between 178 and 318 m for L. cymosa. In P. panurensis, the modeling approaches resulted in moderately higher estimates than observations and genotyping of seed coats. In L. cymosa, parentage analysis resulted in a lower estimate than all other methods. Overall, SDD estimates for P. panurensis (179 ± 16 m; mean ± SD) were significantly lower than for L. cymosa (266 ± 59 m; mean ± SD).Differences among methods were related to processes of the seed dispersal loop integrated by the respective methods (e.g., seed deposition or seedling distribution). We discuss the merits and limitations of each method and highlight the aspects to be considered when comparing SDD derived from different methodologies. Differences among plant species were related to differences in reproductive traits influencing gut passage time and feeding behavior, highlighting the importance of plant traits on animal‐mediated seed dispersal distance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to their inconspicuous behaviour and colouration, it has been assumed that titi monkeys' main anti-predator behaviour is passive crypsis and hiding. So far, active predator mobbing has been documented only for black-fronted titi monkeys, Callicebus nigrifrons. Here we report for the first time mobbing behaviour of red titi monkeys, Plecturocebus cupreus (previously Callicebus cupreus), as reaction to an ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and a Boa constrictor. We also report other active anti-predator behaviours, such as alarm calling and approaching, as reactions to tayras (Eira barbara) and raptors. Our observations provide additional evidence for sex differences in anti-predator behaviour, possibly related to the evolution and maintenance of social monogamy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on how palms a good model to explain primate colour vision diversification. It mentions that Onstein et al. assert that ‘the distribution and diversification of African trichromatic primates are strongly linked to the relative availability of conspicuous palm fruits and that interactions between primates and palms are related to the coevolutionary dynamics of primate colour vision systems and palm fruit colors'.

We report temporal variation and an “outbreak” of frog predation by moustached tamarins, Saguinus mystax, in north-eastern Peruvian Amazonia. Frog predation rates were generally very low, but strongly increased in October 2015. Other high rates, identified by outlier analyses, were also observed in September-November of other years. Over all study years, predation rates in this 3-month period were significantly higher than those in the remainder of the year, suggesting a seasonal pattern of frog predation by tamarins. Reduced fruit availability or increased frog abundance or a combination of both may be responsible for both the seasonal pattern and the specific “outbreak” of frog predation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary seed dispersal by primates (phase I) followed by secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles (phase II) is a common diplochorous system in tropical forests. In such systems, phase I affects the occurrence/outcome of phase II, triggering cascading effects along the chain of plant recruitment with direct consequences on seed dispersal effectiveness. However, we know very little regarding whether seed dispersal effectiveness is increased or decreased by phase II and whether this effect is consistent among habitats. Using a primate-dung beetle diplochorous system, we determined 1) the characteristics of phase I that may affect phase II; 2) the pathways relating biotic/abiotic factors to seed/seedling survival; and 3) if the direction and/or magnitude of phase II effects on seed dispersal effectiveness depend on phase I characteristics. We marked and characterized the dispersal characteristics of 981 seeds dispersed by two tamarin species (Saguinus mystax, Leontocebus nigrifrons) and checked the fate of 503 of them for ≥1 year. Seeds dispersed by L. nigrifrons and seeds surrounded by larger amounts of dung were more likely to be buried by dung beetles. Burial increased seed survival in secondary forest while low seed density increased germination in both habitats. Seed burial increased seed dispersal effectiveness more strongly in secondary (+52.2%) vs. in primary forest (+5.0%), in L. nigrifrons (+12.9%) vs. in S. mystax (+7.9%) feces, and in larger fecal portions (+22.1%) vs. in small-medium ones (+7.3-7.4%). In conclusion, two seed dispersers are more effective than one only in secondary forest, and the magnitude of increase of seed dispersal effectiveness with phase II depends on how the seeds are primarily dispersed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial genetic structure ( SGS) of plants results from the nonrandom distribution of related individuals. SGS provides information on gene flow and spatial patterns of genetic diversity within populations. Seed dispersal creates the spatial template for plant distribution. Thus, in zoochorous plants, dispersal mode and disperser behaviour might have a strong impact on SGS. However, many studies only report the taxonomic group of seed dispersers, without further details. The recent increase in studies on SGS provides the opportunity to review findings and test for the influence of dispersal mode, taxonomic affiliation of dispersers and their behaviour. We compared the proportions of studies with SGS among groups and tested for differences in strength of SGS using Sp statistics. The presence of SGS differed among taxonomic groups, with reduced presence in plants dispersed by birds. Strength of SGS was instead significantly influenced by the behaviour of seed dispersal vectors, with higher SGS in plant species dispersed by animals with behavioural traits that result in short seed dispersal distances. We observed high variance in the strength of SGS in plants dispersed by animals that actively or passively accumulate seeds. Additionally, we found SGS was also affected by pollination and marker type used. Our study highlights the importance of vector behaviour on SGS even in the presence of variance created by other factors. Thus, more detailed information on the behaviour of seed dispersers would contribute to better understand which factors shape the spatial scale of gene flow in animal-dispersed plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed dispersal is a key ecological process in tropical forests, with effects on various levels ranging from plant reproductive success to the carbon storage potential of tropical rainforests. On a local and landscape scale, spatial patterns of seed dispersal create the template for the recruitment process and thus influence the population dynamics of plant species. The strength of this influence will depend on the long-term consistency of spatial patterns of seed dispersal. We examined the long-term consistency of spatial patterns of seed dispersal with spatially explicit data on seed dispersal by two neotropical primate species, Leontocebus nigrifrons and Saguinus mystax (Callitrichidae), collected during four independent studies between 1994 and 2013. Using distributions of dispersal probability over distances independent of plant species, cumulative dispersal distances, and kernel density estimates, we show that spatial patterns of seed dispersal are highly consistent over time. For a specific plant species, the legume Parkia panurensis, the convergence of cumulative distributions at a distance of 300 m, and the high probability of dispersal within 100 m from source trees coincide with the dimension of the spatial-genetic structure on the embryo/juvenile (300 m) and adult stage (100 m), respectively, of this plant species. Our results are the first demonstration of long-term consistency of spatial patterns of seed dispersal created by tropical frugivores. Such consistency may translate into idiosyncratic patterns of regeneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twelve generic names have been ascribed to the New World tamarins but all are currently placed in just one: Saguinus Hoffmannsegg, 1807. Based on geographical distributions, morphology, and pelage patterns and coloration, they have been divided into six species groups: (1) nigricollis, (2) mystax, (3) midas, (4) inustus, (5) bicolor and (6) oedipus. Molecular phylogenetic studies have validated five of these groups; each are distinct clades. Saguinus inustus is embedded in the mystax group. Genetic studies show that tamarins are sister to all other callitrichids, diverging 15−13 Ma. The small-bodied nigricollis group diverged from the remaining, larger tamarins 11−8 Ma, and the mystax group diverged 7−6 Ma; these radiations are older than those of the marmosets ( Callithrix, Cebuella, Mico), which began to diversify 6−5 Ma. The oedipus group diverged from the midas and bicolor groups 5−4 Ma. We review recent taxonomic changes and summarize the history of the generic names. Taking into account the Late Miocene divergence time (11−8 Ma) between the large- and small-bodied tamarin lineages, the small size of the nigricollis group species when compared with other tamarins, and the sympatry of the nigricollis group species with the larger mystax group species, we argue that the nigricollis group be recognized as a distinct genus: Leontocebus Wagner, 1839. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colour vision is highly variable in New World monkeys (NWMs). Evidence for the adaptive basis of colour vision in this group has largely centred on environmental features such as foraging benefits for differently coloured foods or predator detection, whereas selection on colour vision for sociosexual communication is an alternative hypothesis that has received little attention. The colour vision of uakaris (Cacajao) is of particular interest because these monkeys have the most dramatic red facial skin of any primate, as well as a unique fission/fusion social system and a specialist diet of seeds. Here, we investigate colour vision in a wild population of the bald uakari, C. calvus, by genotyping the X-linked opsin locus. We document the presence of a polymorphic colour vision system with an unprecedented number of functional alleles (six), including a novel allele with a predicted maximum spectral sensitivity of 555 nm. This supports the presence of strong balancing selection on different alleles at this locus. We consider different hypotheses to explain this selection. One possibility is that trichromacy functions in sexual selection, enabling females to choose high-quality males on the basis of red facial coloration. In support of this, there is some evidence that health affects facial coloration in uakaris, as well as a high prevalence of blood-borne parasitism in wild uakari populations. Alternatively, the low proportion of heterozygous female trichromats in the population may indicate selection on different dichromatic phenotypes, which might be related to cryptic food coloration. We have uncovered unexpected diversity in the last major lineage of NWMs to be assayed for colour vision, which will provide an interesting system to dissect adaptation of polymorphic trichromacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primates are now known to possess well-developed olfactory sensitivity and discrimination capacities that can play a substantial role in many aspects of their interaction with conspecifics and the environment. Several studies have demonstrated that olfactory cues may be useful in fruit selection. Here, using a conditioning paradigm, we show that captive spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) display high olfactory discrimination performance between synthetic odor mixtures mimicking ripe and unripe fruits of two wild, primate-consumed, Neotropical plant species. Further, we show that spider monkeys are able to discriminate the odor of ripe fruits from odors that simulate unripe fruits that become increasingly similar to that of ripe ones. These results suggest that the ability of spider monkeys to identify ripe fruits may not depend on the presence of any individual compound that mark fruit ripeness. Further, the results demonstrate that spider monkeys are able to identify ripe fruits even when the odor signal is accompanied by a substantial degree of noise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olfaction, the sense of smell, was a latecomer to the systematic investigation of primate sensory ecology after long years in which it was considered to be of minor importance. This view shifted with the growing understanding of its role in social behavior and the accumulation of physiological studies demonstrating that the olfactory abilities of some primates are on a par with those of olfactory-dependent mammals such as dogs and rodents. Recent years have seen a proliferation of physiological, behavioral, anatomical, and genetic investigations of primate olfaction. These investigations have begun to shed light on the importance of olfaction in the process of food acquisition. However, integration of these works has been limited. It is therefore still difficult to pinpoint large-scale evolutionary scenarios, namely the functions that the sense of smell fulfills in primates' feeding ecology and the ecological niches that favor heavier reliance on olfaction. Here, we review available behavioral and physiological studies of primates in the field or captivity and try to elucidate how and when the sense of smell can help them acquire food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Throughout many regions of the tropics, non-primate animals - mainly birds and mammals - have been observed to follow primate groups and to exploit dropped food and flushed prey. The anecdotal nature of most of the numerous reports on these primate-non-primate associations ( PNPAs) may obscure the biological significance of such associations. We review the existing literature and test predictions concerning the influence of primate traits (body size, activity patterns, dietary strategies, habitat, group size) on the occurrence of PNPAs. Furthermore, we examine the influence of non-primates' dietary strategies on the occurrence of PNPAs, and the distribution of benefits and costs. We detected a strong signal in the geographic distribution of PNPAs, with a larger number of such associations in the Neotropics compared to Africa and Asia. Madagascar lacks PNPAs altogether. Primate body size, activity patterns, habitat and dietary strategies as well as non-primate dietary strategies affect the occurrence of PNPAs, while primate group size did not play a role. Benefits are asymmetrically distributed and mainly accrue to non-primates. They consist of foraging benefits through the consumption of dropped leaves and fruits and flushed prey, and anti-predation benefits through eavesdropping on primate alarm calls and vigilance. Where quantitative information is available, it has been shown that benefits for non-primates can be substantial. The majority of PNPAs can thus be categorized as cases of commensalism, while mutualism is very rare. Our review provides evidence that the ecological function of primates extends beyond their manifold interactions with plants, but may remain underestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed dispersal effectiveness ( SDE) is a conceptual framework that aims at quantifying the contribution of seed dispersal vectors to plant fitness. While it is well recognized that diplochorous dispersal systems, characterized by two successive dispersal steps performed by two different vectors (Phase I = primary seed dispersal and Phase II = secondary seed dispersal) which are common in temperate and tropical regions, little attention has been given to distinguishing the relative contribution of one-phase and two-phase dispersal to overall SDE. This conceptual gap probably results from the lack of a clear methodology to include Phase II dispersal into the calculation of SDE and to quantify its relative contribution., We propose a method to evaluate the relative contribution of one-phase and two-phase dispersal to SDE and determine whether two seed dispersers are better than one. To do so, we used the SDE landscape and an extension of the SDE landscape, the Phase II effect landscape, which measures the direction and magnitude of the Phase II dispersal effect on overall SDE. We used simulated and empirical data from a diplochorous dispersal system in the Peruvian Amazon to illustrate this new approach., Our approach provides the relative contribution of one-phase SDE ( SDE1) and two-phase SDE (SDE2) to overall SDE and quantifies how much SDE changes with the addition of Phase II dispersal. Considering that the seed dispersal process is context dependent so that Phase II depends on Phase I, we predict the possible range of variation of SDE according to the variation of the probability of Phase II dispersal. In our specific study system composed of two primate species as primary dispersal vectors and different species of dung beetles as secondary dispersal vectors, the relative contribution of SDE1 and SDE2 to overall SDE varied between plant species. We discuss the context dependency of the Phase II dispersal and the potential applications of our approach., This extension to the conceptual framework of SDE enables quantitative evaluation of the effect of Phase II dispersal on plant fitness and can be easily adapted to other biotic and/or abiotic diplochorous dispersal systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous animal species currently experience habitat loss and fragmentation. This might result in behavioral and dietary adjustments, especially because fruit availability is frequently reduced in fragments. Food scarcity can result in elevated physiological stress levels, and chronic stress often has detrimental effects on individuals. Some animal species exhibit a high degree of fission-fusion dynamics, and theory predicts that these species reduce intragroup feeding competition by modifying their subgroup size according to resource availability. Until now, however, there have been few studies on how species with such fission-fission dynamics adjust their grouping patterns and social behavior in small fragments or on how food availability influences their stress levels. We collected data on fruit availability, feeding behavior, stress hormone levels (measured through fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM)), subgroup size, and aggression for two groups of brown spider monkeys ( Ateles hybridus) in a small forest fragment in Colombia and examined whether fruit availability influences these variables. Contrary to our predictions, spider monkeys ranged in smaller subgroups, had higher FGCM levels and higher aggression rates when fruit availability was high compared to when it was low. The atypical grouping pattern of the study groups seems to be less effective at mitigating contest competition over food resources than more typical fission-fusion patterns. Overall, our findings illustrate that the relationship between resource availability, grouping patterns, aggression rates, and stress levels can be more complex than assumed thus far. Additional studies are needed to investigate the long-term consequences on the health and persistence of spider monkeys in fragmented habitats. Am. J. Primatol. 76:1049-1061, 2014. © 2014 The Authors. American Journal of Primatology Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We address the question why papers dealing with the ecology of primates are so sparsely represented in the general ecological literature. A literature analyses based on entries in Web of Science and PrimateLit reveals that despite a large number of papers published on primates in general and on the ecology of primates, only a very small fraction of these papers is published in high-ranking international ecological journals. We discuss a number of potential reasons for the disproportion and highlight the problems associated with experimental research on wild primates and constraints on sample size as major issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]