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Using off-axis electron holography under Lorentz microscopy conditions to experimentally determine the magnetization distribution in individual cobalt (Co) nanowires, and scanning precessionelectron diffraction to obtain their crystalline orientation phase map, allowed us to directly visualize with high accuracy the effect of crystallographic texture on the magnetization of nanowires. The influence of grain boundaries and disorientations on the magnetic structure is correlated on the basis of micromagnetic analysis in order to establish the detailed relationship between magnetic and crystalline structure. This approach demonstrates the applicability of the method employed and provides further understanding on the effect of crystalline structure on magnetic properties at the nanometric scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metallic nanowires with low resistivity were grown inside insulating aluminum oxide matrices that contained very uniform columnar nanopores (10.6+/1.7 nm diameters). These nanopores can be made with large-scale order (cm \(^{2}\) ), which is desirable in applications such as hard drive read sensors and random access memories. The nanowires are grown by electrochemical deposition directly inside the alumina to avoid sidewall damage compared to nanostructures that are defined from films by lithographical patterning and etching. Specifically, trilayers of [Co(15 nm)/Cu(5 nm)/Co(10 nm)] were synthesized and measured to have 30 \(\Omega \) resistance and 19% magnetoresistance. These parameters are desirable for read head sensors, especially because the nanowires described here have 1:1 aspect ratios, and \(10\times \) smaller areas and \(100\times \) lower resistances than conventional read sensors based on lithographically produced magnetic tunnel junctions. A new nanostamping technique is introduced, in which linear stamps with ordered cm \(^{2}\) areas are imprinted onto aluminum precursors to produce ordered nanoporous aluminum oxide upon anodization. These stamps are substantially less-time consuming and cheaper to make than dot type stamps, and the order enables closely spaced arrays of CPP-GMR sensors for one-pass 2-D recording and cross recording. Importantly, the GMR sensors are grown directly into aluminum oxide with 20 nm separation. Therefore, a relatively large pattern ( \(30 \times 100\) nm) can be used to produce three 10 nm-diameter GMR sensors without roughening or redeposition on sidewalls. The sensors are also already embedded in alumina for subsequent device processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In nature, microscale hair-like projections called cilia are used ubiquitously for both sensing and motility. In this paper, biomimetic nanoscale cilia arrays have been fabricated through templated growth of Co in anodized aluminum oxide. The motion of arrays of Co cilia was then detected using magnetic sensors. These signals were used to prove the feasibility of two types of sensors: flow sensors and vibration sensors. The flow sensors were tested in a microfluidic channel. They showed the ability to detect flows from 0.5 ml/min to 6 ml/min with a signal to noise (SNR) of 44 using only 140 \mu\ W of power and no amplification. The vibration sensors were tested using a shake table in the low earthquake-like frequency range of 1–5 Hz. The vibration response was a mW signal at twice the frequency of the shake table. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All-metal current perpendicular to the plane (CPP) giant magnetoresistance (GMR) layers have been made within insulating matrices by direct growth to avoid sidewall damage that is caused by lithographical patterning in current vacuum-deposited devices. These insulating matrices can be made to have nanostructures with multiscale order to allow photolithographical alignment of contacts to 10–500 nm devices. This alignment was demonstrated with 100–200 nm diameter structures to prove feasibility. Next, trilayers of [Co(15 nm)/Cu(5 nm)/Co(10 nm)] with 10 nm diameters were made by electrochemical deposition with 30 \Omega resistance and 19% magnetoresistance. These parameters are desirable for read head sensors, especially because the nanowires described here have 1:1 aspect ratios, 10\times smaller areas, and 100\times lower resistances than conventional read sensors based on lithographically-produced magnetic tunnel junctions. Finally, the potential application of closely spaced arrays of CPP GMR sensors for enabling one-pass two dimensional recording as well as a new technique called cross recording will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate the challenges related to electrodeposition and characterization of magnetostrictive galfenol thin films as well as techniques used to overcome these issues. Successful deposition and evaluation of galfenol thin films is necessary for the design of galfenol based microelectromechanical devices. Stress is a primary concern because thick films and poor adhesion to substrates (e.g., silicon oxide) can lead to delamination and peeling. In addition, magnetostriction measurements require films that are uniform in thickness and composition over the sample area. Various adhesion layers were tested, and delamination was eliminated with Cr/Cu, which provided robust adhesion to the glass substrates used in capacitance bridge measurements. Uniformity and composition were controlled by the use of a rotating disk electrode for electrodeposition, which created a uniform boundary condition across the sample during deposition. The capacitance bridge technique was calibrated with Ni/glass samples, after which a magnetostriction of 140 ppm was measured for Fe83Ga17 films. These results represent the first magnetostriction measurements of electrodeposited galfenol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, thin films of Fe83Ga17 (a giant magnetostrictive alloy) were grown on single-crystalline n-GaAs (001) and polycrystalline brass substrates via electrochemical synthesis from ferrous and gallium sulfate electrolytes. Extensive structural characterization using microdiffraction, high-resolution ω - 2θ, and rocking-curve analysis revealed that the films grown on GaAs(001) are highly textured with <001> orientation along the substrate normal, and the texture improved further upon annealing at 300 °C for 2 h in N2 environment. On the contrary, films grown on brass substrates exhibited <011> preferred orientation. Rocking-curve analysis done on Fe83Ga17/GaAs structures further confirmed that the <001> texture in the Fe83Ga17 thin film is a result of epitaxial nucleation and growth. The non-linear current-voltage plot obtained for the Fe-Ga/GaAs Schottky contacts was characteristic of tunneling injection, and showed improved behavior with annealing. Thus, this study demonstrates the feasibility of fabricating spintronic devices that incorporate highly magnetostrictive Fe(1-x)Gax thin films grown epitaxially via electrochemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, magnetization reversal mechanisms in various 35 nm diameter Fe80Ga20/Cu multilayered nanowire arrays were studied by a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) equipped with vector coils, making it possible to monitor both x- and y-components of the sample moment during reversal. When reversal fields were applied in the low angular range (0 - 60°), all nanowire structures, irrespective of Fe80Ga20 or Cu aspect ratios, experienced reversal by nucleation and propagation of a vortex domain wall. However, when fields were applied in the high angular range of 60-90°, reversal occurred by coherent rotation. Using vector-VSM, it was further shown that in structures with pancake-like Fe80Ga20 segments, the extent to which moments in adjacent segments rotate cooperatively decreased as the Cu thickness increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Galfenol (Fe1−xGax, 10 < x < 40) may be the only smart material that can be made by electrochemical deposition which enables thick film and nanowire structures. This article reviews the deposition, characterization, and applications of Galfenol thin films and nanowires. Galfenol films have been made by sputter deposition as well as by electrochemical deposition, which can be difficult due to the insolubility of gallium. However, a stable process has been developed, using citrate complexing, a rotating disk electrode, Cu seed layers, and pulsed deposition. Galfenol thin films and nanowires have been characterized for crystal structures and magnetostriction both by our group and by collaborators. Films and nanowires have been shown to be largely polycrystalline, with magnetostrictions that are on the same order of magnitude as textured bulk Galfenol. Electrodeposited Galfenol films were made with epitaxial texture on GaAs. Galfenol nanowires have been made by electrodeposition into anodic aluminum oxide templates using similar parameters defined for films. Segmented nanowires of Galfenol/Cu have been made to provide engineered magnetic properties. Applications of Galfenol and other magnetic nanowires include microfluidic sensors, magnetic separation, cellular radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast, and hyperthermia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]