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Interleukin (IL)‐38 is a member of the IL‐1 cytokine family with reported anti‐inflammatory activity. The highest constitutive IL‐38 expression is detected in the skin, where it is mainly produced by differentiating keratinocytes. However, little data are available regarding its biological functions. In this study, we investigated the role of IL‐38 in skin physiology. We demonstrate here that dermal fibroblasts and epithelial cells of skin appendages, such as eccrine sweat glands and sebaceous glands, also express IL‐38. Next, using two‐ and three‐dimensional cell cultures, we show that endogenous expression of IL‐38 correlates with keratinocyte differentiation and its ectopic overexpression inhibits keratinocyte proliferation and enhances differentiation. Accordingly, immunohistochemical analysis revealed downregulation of IL‐38 in skin pathologies characterized by keratinocyte hyperproliferation, such as psoriasis and basal or squamous cell carcinoma. Finally, intracellular IL‐38 can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm and its overexpression modulates the activity of the transcription regulators YAP and ID1. Our results indicate that IL‐38 can act independently from immune system activation and suggest that it may affect the epidermis directly by decreasing proliferation and promoting differentiation of keratinocytes. These data suggest an important role of keratinocyte‐derived IL‐38 in skin homeostasis and pathologies characterized by epidermal alterations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interleukin (IL)-1 family cytokines initiate inflammatory responses, and shape innate and adaptive immunity. They play important roles in host defense, but excessive immune activation can also lead to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. Dysregulated IL-1 family signaling is observed in a variety of skin disorders. In particular, IL-1 family cytokines have been linked to the pathogenesis of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. The biological activity of pro-inflammatory IL-1 family agonists is controlled by the natural receptor antagonists IL-1Ra and IL-36Ra, as well as by the regulatory cytokines IL-37 and IL-38. These four anti-inflammatory IL-1 family members are constitutively and highly expressed at steady state in the epidermis, where keratinocytes are a major producing cell type. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge concerning their regulatory roles in skin biology and inflammation and their therapeutic potential in human inflammatory skin diseases. We further highlight some common misunderstandings and less well-known observations, which persist in the field despite recent extensive interest for these cytokines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interleukin (IL)-38 is a member of the IL-1 family of cytokines, which was proposed to exert anti-inflammatory effects. IL-38 is constitutively expressed in the skin, where keratinocytes are the main producing cells. Little information is currently available concerning IL-38 biology. Here, we investigated the subcellular localization and interaction partners of the IL-38 protein in human keratinocytes. IL-38 expression was reduced in primary keratinocytes grown in monolayer (2D) cultures. We thus used IL-38 overexpressing immortalized normal human keratinocytes (NHK/38) to study this cytokine in cell monolayers. In parallel, differentiation of primary human keratinocytes in an in vitro reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) 3D model allowed us to restore endogenous IL-38 expression. In NHK/38 cells and in RHE, IL-38 was mainly cell-associated, rather than released into culture supernatants. Intracellular IL-38 was preferentially, although not exclusively, cytoplasmic. Similarly, in normal human skin sections, IL-38 was predominantly cytoplasmic in the epidermis and essentially excluded from keratinocyte nuclei. A yeast two-hybrid screen identified destrin/actin-depolymerizing factor (DSTN) as a potential IL-38-interacting molecule. Co-immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assay confirmed this interaction. We further observed partial co-localization of IL-38 and DSTN in NHK/38 cells. Endogenous IL-38 and DSTN were also co-expressed in all epidermal layers in RHE and in normal human skin. Finally, IL-38 partially co-localized with F-actin in NHK/38 cells, in particular along the cortical actin network and in filopodia. In conclusion, IL-38 is found predominantly in the cytoplasm of human keratinocytes, where it interacts with DSTN. The functional relevance of this interaction remains to be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]