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This study investigated the relation between teachers' occupational well-being and the quality of teacher–student interactions in lower secondary schools in Finland. Teachers (N = 48) self-rated their occupational well-being in terms of engagement, stress, job demands, and emotional exhaustion. Teacher–student interactions in classrooms were video-recorded and coded with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. The results of multivariate regression analyses showed that teachers who reported higher work-related stress were observed with a lower quality of emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support when controlling for background factors. It is proposed that the observed quality of teacher–student interactions is related to teachers' work-related stress in lower secondary schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cross-lagged study examined the classroom-level associations between the reading performance of first-grade students (N = 537) and observed literacy instruction activities in classrooms (N = 30) in the autumn and spring terms. The multilevel analyses indicated that lower average word reading skills in the classrooms (i.e., there were more students who were learning to read) in the autumn were associated with higher amount of activities supporting consolidation of reading and spelling skills in the spring. In contrast, higher average word reading skills in the classrooms in the autumn were associated with higher amount of independent meaning-focused activities in the spring. Higher extent of whole-group meaning-focused activities in the autumn was positively associated with reading comprehension at classroom level in the spring, whereas independent phonological recoding practice in the autumn was negatively associated with reading comprehension in the spring. The study provides novel understanding of the associations between students' reading performance and literacy instruction especially showing how students' reading skills at classroom level may inform instruction in the classroom. This information may guide teachers to adapt their instruction at classroom level but also to identify the students needing differentiation. The results also acknowledge the affordances and limitations students' skills may set for the instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to investigate elementary school principals' work from the ecological systems perspective and which elements of their work are experienced as demands or resources. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 principals. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. The results show that the way principals experience their work is individual and influenced by several internal and external factors. Some of the most extensive demands appear to be related to interaction with different stakeholders in situations where principals have the role of mediator in solving conflicting situations. Challenges also seem to arise in dealing with elements or issues that principals cannot influence or have no control over. Principals' current perception is influenced by their education, work and personal histories and future vision. The results also indicate that principals need in-service training concerning social interaction and human resource management, such as how to act in conflicting situations, interact with different personalities and get the entire school community to develop and work for common goals. In addition, our findings suggest that offering support to principals through, for example, mentoring programmes during their first years could reduce the pressures they face and help them concentrate more fully on relevant tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the profiles of parental perceptions of their child's school adjustment in terms of learning loss and school well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in Finland. Furthermore, the extent to which the profiles differed with respect to the different children and their family characteristics, as well as their parents' stress about their child's schooling, were examined. Parents (N = 26,313) completed a questionnaire in spring 2021 concerning parental stress and their children's schooling. The five-profile solution was identified using latent profile analysis: (1) slightly-higher-than-average-school-adjustment (n = 8198, 31.2%); (2) high-school-adjustment (n = 3017, 11.5%); (3) slightly-lower-than-average-school-adjustment (n = 5025, 19.1%); (4) low-school-adjustment (n = 6777, 25.7%); and (5) mixed-school-adjustment (n = 3296, 12.5%). The low-school-adjustment profile was overrepresented among parents of boys, older children, and children with special education needs as well as among parents with lower education levels, higher numbers of children, and in single-parent households. In addition, the results showed that parental stress about their child's schooling was associated with their perceptions of their child's school adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the results demonstrate that parents' views of their children's school adjustment varied widely during the COVID-19 pandemic. At schools, particular attention should be given to at-risk families (e.g., families with low education levels and children with special education needs) in which children may be prone to learning loss and low well-being due to the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study compares the feedback themes that groups of teachers (n = 5) and student teachers (n = 15) discussed in a professional development programme concerning teachers' classroom interaction and formative assessment, and the agents they assigned the feedback to. The results of the thematic analysis show little variation with the conversation themes between the groups, but they did show more with the appointed agents of feedback themes. The teachers assigned feedback themes to the teacher and the students, as student teachers assigned them to the teacher and the learning environment. By referring to feedback as the shared responsibility of the teacher and students, the teachers demonstrated more modern views of feedback than the student teachers. Ignoring students' part limits the understanding of feedback as a shared process between teacher and student. Teacher education should ensure that attention is also paid to students' role in the feedback process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teacher self-reports were used to investigate patterns of their self-efficacy and attitudes toward inclusive education in association with teacher emotional support, collective teacher efficacy, and collegial collaboration. Data included a sample of 100 Norwegian upper secondary school teachers from a mixed-methods cluster randomised controlled trial study. Latent profile analysis identified four subgroups: Low Self-Efficacy, Mid Attitudes (n = 19); High in All (n = 15); Mid Self-Efficacy, Low Attitudes (n = 36); and High Self-Efficacy, Mid Attitudes (n = 30). Teachers in the High in All profile reported being the most emotionally supportive, while the highest levels of collective efficacy and collegial collaboration were reported by teachers belonging to the High Self-Efficacy, Mid Attitudes profile. Teachers in the Low Self-Efficacy, Mid Attitudes profile reported the lowest levels of emotional support, collective efficacy, and collegial collaboration. The results provide a deeper understanding of the association between teachers' self-efficacy and attitudes toward inclusive education by investigating distinct teacher profiles with diverse self-efficacy and attitude characteristics, leading to more targeted and effective strategies in inclusive education research, practice, and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the amount and quality of educational dialogue in relation to student math performance in Grade 2. Domains of teacher occupational stress were considered predicting variables for dialogue and math performance. Video-recorded lessons (N = 151) of 50 teachers were analysed in terms of dialogic episodes to determine the amount (length and number of episodes) and quality (four patterns) of dialogue. Multilevel modelling showed that the amount of educational dialogue associated positively with student math performance. In addition, teacher cynicism was related to math performance via the amount of educational dialogue. Regarding dialogue quality, moderate-quality dialogue linked positively with student math performance, but no indirect associations were found when considering teacher cynicism. The findings provide important new knowledge by investigating the effect of educational dialogue on young students' achievement and by mapping indirect associations between teacher occupational stress, dialogue, and student math performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teacher–student relationship and students' social competence were investigated in relation to the quality of educational dialogue. The data consisted of 151 video-recorded Grade 2 lessons. The teachers (N = 50) also rated their students' (N = 664) social competence and the teacher–student relationship. In terms of teacher–student relationships, closeness associated positively while conflict associated negatively with high quality dialogue. Regarding students' social competence, cooperation skills and empathy linked positively while disruptiveness linked negatively with high quality dialogue. The findings provide new knowledge on how different student-related factors may support or prevent the building of educational dialogue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated associations between quality of the teacher–student relationship (closeness and conflict) and teachers' (N = 48) visual focus of attention in Grade 1 classrooms in fall and spring, and it explored to what extent students' (N = 650) gender and task-avoidant behaviour moderated the associations. Results showed first that teacher–student closeness was positively associated with teachers' visual focus of attention in the fall and spring, whereas teacher–student conflict was positively associated with teachers' visual focus of attention only in the spring. In addition, the results of multigroup analysis showed that students' task-avoidant behaviour had a moderating effect on the association between the quality of the teacher–student relationship and teachers' visual focus of attention in the spring, but gender did not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This descriptive case study examined how teaching practices were evidenced in Grade 1 classrooms in two different cultural and educational contexts, Finland and Japan. Teachers' teaching practices were video-recorded in 53 classrooms in Finland and six classrooms in Japan and rated with the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure by trained investigators. Four Finnish teachers and two Japanese teachers having the highest scores in either child-centered or teacher-directed practices were selected for a descriptive case study to take a closer look at how teaching practices in terms of management, climate, and instruction are evidenced in authentic classroom situations. The analysis revealed some similarities and disparities in how teacher-directed and child-centered practices are reflected in classroom situations in the two countries. For example, in Japan, teachers favoring child-centered practices asked more open-ended questions and encouraged brainstorming and group discussions, whereas the Finnish teachers emphasized socio-emotional skills. The results suggest that cultural values may play a role in how teachers create a positive climate, implement instruction, and organize activities in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between teachers' (N = 53) physiological and psychological stress and their visual focus of attention as well as the mediating effect of teaching practices on this association in authentic classroom settings. Data were collected using multimodal methods of measurement: salivary cortisol levels for physiological stress, a self-reported questionnaire for psychological stress, observed teaching practices during one school day, and eye-tracking video recordings of classroom teachers during one lesson for teachers' visual focus of attention. The results showed that neither teachers' physiological nor psychological stress was directly related to their visual focus of attention. However, using more child-centered teaching practices compared with teacher-directed ones was related to a higher number of fixations on students, longer total fixation duration, and more individualized distribution of visual focus of attention on students. Teacher's teaching practices mediated the effect of teachers' psychological stress on their fixation counts on students and distribution of visual focus of attention. The results suggest that teaching practices are related to the visual attention teachers' give to students and that teachers' stress affects their visual focus of attention through teaching practices. The practical implications of this study suggest that teachers should receive training and support to recognize their stress level and its association with their teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated bidirectional associations between teachers' sense of inadequacy and self-efficacy and factors related to them across one academic year. Teachers (N = 52) rated their sense of inadequacy and self-efficacy in fall and spring, and reported the number of students in need of support in spring. The results of cross-lagged path models showed that teachers' sense of inadequacy in fall negatively predicted their subsequent self-efficacy, especially in the dimensions of student engagement and classroom management. In addition, teachers' work experience and number of students with need of support in terms of social and behavioral problems were related to teacher self-efficacy (TSE). Based on these findings, the number of students in need of support in the classroom is a critical factor that influences TSE; therefore, teachers may need support to manage students with needs in terms of social and behavioral problems to maintain their sense of high self-efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agency of primary school students has been studied increasingly in recent years; yet, we know relatively little about student agency in music educational settings or how students experience their participation in joint musical action. This study explores sixth-grade students' experiences of their agency in whole-class playing. Qualitative content analysis of 11 pair interviews identified vulnerability as an essential element of participating in whole-class playing, highlighting the intrinsically emotional nature of the process, the immediacy of the musically shared moment and the safe place of entrainment. This study elucidates the enactment of agency and the resources facilitating and limiting agency within the context of whole-class playing from the perspective of students themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Findings: The aim of the present study was to identify profiles of kindergarten teachers based on the observed quality of interactions with the children in their classrooms and to explore possible differences between the profiles in terms of teachers' occupational well-being and teacher and classroom characteristics. Participants were 54 Finnish kindergarten teachers whose interactions with children were observed with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS Pre-K). The teachers also completed a questionnaire about their occupational well-being. Four interaction profiles were identified: Highest Quality, Moderate Quality, Lower Quality with Limited Negativity, and Lower Quality with Moderate Negativity. Differences between the profiles were found in teachers' teaching-related stress, general stress, and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the profiles differed, albeit marginally significantly, in terms of teachers' emotional exhaustion. Overall, teachers in the Moderate Quality profile reported the most favorable occupational well-being, whereas teachers in the Highest Quality and the two lower quality profiles reported challenges to their occupational well-being. The profiles did not differ in terms of teacher and classroom characteristics. Practice or Policy: Results suggest that teachers' professional development opportunities should focus on both improving the quality of classroom interactions and enhancing teachers' occupational well-being by reducing their stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the occurrence and quality of educational dialogue in the preschool classrooms of teachers with low, moderate and high stress levels. Video-recordings of 21 preschool teachers were analysed based on episodes of educational dialogue and categorised with respect to patterns of dialogic teaching and shared knowledge building. The teachers' level of stress was determined based on their self-reporting of work-related stress and well-being. The findings showed that moderately stressed teachers conducted educational dialogue the most, whereas teachers with low stress conducted dialogue the least. Patterns of teacher-initiated dialogue of a high quality and patterns involving factual knowledge sharing prevailed in the sample. The study contributes to knowledge on teacher stress levels and the occurrence of educational dialogue in preschool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Student–teacher relationships are crucial for adolescents' adjustment in the school context. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of teacher closeness in academic emotions and achievement among adolescents with and without learning difficulties during the first year in lower secondary school. Students' learning difficulties (LDs) were identified based on tested reading and math skills. In addition, students evaluated their teacher relationships and rated academic emotions in literacy and math domains. The results indicated that higher teacher closeness was related to increasing positive emotions and increasing literacy achievement during seventh grade, whereas lower levels of teacher closeness were associated with increasing learning-related anger and boredom. The results were mostly similar for students with and without LDs, which indicates that students in general benefit from close teacher relationships during the first year in lower secondary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to investigate elementary school principals' self-reported causes of work-related stress, their coping strategies to deal with stress and the support they need for their leadership. Seventy-six principals filled in the questionnaire, which included open-ended questions. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. The results showed that the main sources of stress were workload, interpersonal conflicts, a lack of resources and internal pressures. Moreover, principals used emotion-focused, problem-focused and social coping to deal with stress. Additionally, principals reported a need for problem-focused support and social support for their leadership. The results revealed the importance of social support and coping for principals' occupational wellbeing. A more intimate approach to principals' perceptions about the causes of occupational stress, their coping strategies and the support they need provides opportunities to consider diverse personal requirements, which may be fundamental in promoting principals' occupational wellbeing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When classroom observations are increasingly used for accountability and evaluation purposes, a deeper understanding of the psychometric properties of such measurement tools is needed. The present study took a unique approach to examine the psychometric properties of a commonly used classroom observation measure by testing the reliability of indicators for higher-order constructs (i.e. dimensions). We investigated the reliability of indicator ratings of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) Pre-K instrument in Finnish kindergarten and first grade classrooms. Twenty-one observer pairs rated 838 segments identified from the 413 lessons of 48 teachers. Variance components models were specified to investigate variance proportions of each indicator and dimension. The results showed that most observer disagreement was found for the instructional support domain. Observers disagreed relatively more depending on the teacher they observed. There is a clear need for additional understanding on how observers process information on the complex elements of classroom interaction in order to improve training programmes and the reliability and accuracy of the assessment procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Teachers' self‐reported stress is related to the quality of teacher–student interactions and students' learning outcomes. However, it is unclear if teachers' physiological stress is related to child‐centred teaching practices in the classroom and whether teaching practices mediate the link between teachers' stress and students' learning outcomes. Aims: We studied the effect of teachers' physiological stress and self‐reported stress on their teaching practices and thereby on students' learning outcomes in math. Sample: A total of 53 classroom teachers and 866 Grade 1 students participated in the study. Methods: Salivary cortisol in the middle of the school day and cortisol slope from morning peak to evening were used as indicators of teachers' physiological stress, in addition to self‐reported teaching‐related stress. Teaching practices were observed with the ECCOM instrument. Students' math skills controlled for gender and previous skills were used as a measure of learning outcomes. Data were analysed with a two‐level SEM. Results: Teachers' physiological stress did not have an effect on teaching practices or students' math skills. Teachers reporting less stress used relatively more child‐centred teaching practices compared with teacher‐directed ones. These practices had a marginal effect on classroom‐level differences in the gain of students' math skills in Grade 1. There was neither a direct nor indirect effect from teachers' stress on students' math skills. Altogether, our model explained 77% of classroom‐level variance in math skills. Conclusions: Teachers' self‐reported stress has an effect on their teaching practices, which, in turn, have a marginal effect on students' learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: Integrative models applied to human learning and performance emphasize the joint operation of biological, psychological, social, and educational processes to fully understand human functioning. Educational psychology researchers have typically emphasized psycho‐educational and psycho‐social factors in motivation, engagement and learning, but do not often consider the biophysiological factors. Results: This Editorial and Special Issue advances current understanding on the role of biophysiological factors and processes in students' and teachers' motivation, engagement, and learning experiences, by showcasing recent educational research that included biophysiological measures and methods. Conclusions: As we discuss, conducting integrative biophysiological and psycho‐educational research has potential to derive vital substantive, methodological, and applied insights that provide a rigorous basis for more effective educational theory, research, and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines primary-school children's beliefs about their school performance at the end of their first school year in Finland and feedback that they have received, and furthermore possible gender differences between these beliefs. Children from Grade 1 (N = 544), approximately 7 years old, were interviewed. The data were assessed using problem-driven content analyzis and inductive reasoning. The analyzis revealed ten categories of children's beliefs regarding their school success and failure. The results showed that more than one-third of the children believed that they were succeeding well at school. More boys than girls mentioned that they succeeded in mathematics, and more girls than boys mentioned that they succeeded in literacy. Based on the interviews, teachers rarely gave feedback. Even less feedback was reportedly given by teachers when the children believed that they were performing poorly. Therefore, different modes of giving feedback and the way feedback is provided should be carefully considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Teachers' stress, affect and general occupational well‐being influence their teaching and their students. However, how teachers' daily physiological stress and positive affect are related in the classroom is unknown. To reduce teachers' stress and enhance their positive affect, it is crucial to understand how occupational well‐being relates to stress and affect. Aim: The aim of the study was to examine the relationships between teachers' daily physiological stress and positive affect in authentic classroom settings and the roles played by teachers' self‐efficacy beliefs, perceptions of school climate and burnout symptoms in daily stress and affect. Sample: The sample consisted of 45 classroom teachers. Method: Daily physiological stress was assessed by measuring salivary cortisol levels three times in two days. Positive affect was reported by experience sampling at the same time that cortisol was collected. Questionnaires were used to assess self‐efficacy beliefs, perceptions of school climate and burnout symptoms. Three‐level modelling with random intercepts and slopes was used to analyse the relationships between daily stress and affect and the effect of teachers' general occupational well‐being on stress and affect. Results: No relationships were evident between teachers' physiological stress and positive affect or between daily changes of stress and affect. Self‐efficacy beliefs were related to lower stress and higher affect in the middle of the school day. Having sufficient school resources were related to higher positive affect. Teachers' burnout symptoms were associated with lower positive affect. Conclusions: We emphasize the potential for self‐efficacy and perceptions of school resources as targets for intervening in teachers' stress and affect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantified the possible learning losses in reading and math skills among a sample of Finnish Grade 3 children (n = 198) who spent 8 weeks in distance learning during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020. We compared their reading and math skill development trajectories across Grades 1, 2, and 4 to a pre-COVID sample (N = 378). We also examined if gender, parental education, maternal homework involvement, and child's task-avoidant behavior predict children's academic skills at Grade 4 differently in the pre-COVID sample compared with the COVID sample. Children's reading and math skills were tested, mothers reported their education and homework involvement, and teachers rated children's task-avoidant behavior. The results showed, on average, lower reading skills in the COVID sample than in the pre-COVID sample but there were no differences in math skills. Although the COVID sample had lower levels in reading, their developmental trajectories in reading and math skills were not different from the pre-COVID sample before the pandemic in Grades 1 and 2. From Grade 2 to 4, however, the development was slower in reading fluency and comprehension in the COVID sample, but not in math. The predictors of change from Grade 2 to 4 in reading and math skills were not different in the samples. The results showed that the development of reading skills in particular may have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative interview-based study draws on the reported experiences of students and teachers to explore how agency and entrainment resource and constrain each other in joint music-making. The participants were 23 students of Grades 6 and 11 music teachers from different primary schools. The qualitative content analysis of the 11 student pair interviews and 11 one-to-one teacher interviews indicated that experiences of music-related interpersonal entrainment intertwine with different dimensions of agency. In the analysis, four themes were identified as follows: presence, belonging, safety, and continuity. These findings provide insights into the relationship between agency and entrainment in classroom-based joint music-making and provide a novel lens through which to examine the complementary experiences of students and teachers. This study builds bridges between the concepts of agency and entrainment in the context of music education, offering theoretical clarification as to how and why joint music-making can be considered an intersubjective activity that fosters group cohesion and social interaction. The findings further present a view of the constitutive nature of the relationship among agency, entrainment, and intersubjectivity in joint music-making. The findings offer educators concrete grounds for using joint music-making as a platform for an agency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated teachers' focus of attention and stress in first-grade classrooms. Teachers' (n = 53) focus of attention was recorded in fall and spring with a mobile eye-tracking device, and the teachers reported stress via questionnaires. Correlation analysis was used to examine association between teacher stress (exhaustion, cynicism, and inadequacy) and focus of attention. Then, one teacher reporting more stress and one reporting less stress were selected for a case study to examine variations in their focus of attention. The results showed positive associations between teachers' perceived inadequacy and overall focus of attention (whole eye-tracking recording) both in fall and spring. Teachers' focus of attention during specific activity settings of management/routines and transitions correlated positively with all three stress domains in fall. In addition, a positive association was also found between teacher inadequacy and focus of attention during teacher-directed large group activity setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores music teachers' beliefs of student agency in whole-class playing and investigates what characterises student agency through teachers' values, actions and observations within this unique multimodal and -dimensional learning environment. Our abductive analysis of 11 interviews reveals that the role of teacher support is significant in enacting students' agency. This study provides insights into student agency through the eyes and actions of teachers within the context of whole-class playing and suggests that the enactment of different aspects of student agency is an essential feature necessary for whole-class playing to succeed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An awareness of school-related antecedents of children's physiological stress at the beginning of school helps educators to prevent and mitigate children's stress, the one of the major obstacles to their well-being and academic progress. We aimed to study the effect of reading skills and social competence on first-grade students' salivary cortisol levels in natural settings. Based on previous results of the effects of everyday situations on children's stress according to gender, we expected that both academic and social skills would affect girls' physiological stress more, compared to boys. Our sample consisted of 277 students (7–8 years old, 50.2% girls). We used the highest salivary cortisol level of three morning samples and a cortisol level from the middle of the school day as physiological stress indicators. Reading skills were assessed by group-administered tests and social competence by teacher ratings. We found that lower reading comprehension skills and lower disruptiveness were related to higher cortisol levels for girls but not for boys. Higher empathy and lower disruptiveness moderated the effect of better reading comprehension on higher psychological stress in the middle of the school day only for girls. By recognizing the antecedents of children's stress and supporting their academic and social skills, children's, especially girls', physiological self-regulation and coping skills in the primary grades will benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing literature on early childhood education (ECE) quality is predominantly from the US or other developed countries. In low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), systematic research on ECE quality, however, is very limited. In the present study, we explore variation in structural and process indicators of ECE quality in two Eastern European LMICs, Kosovo and Ukraine, using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K (CLASS) as a measure of process quality for the first time in these countries. We also include Finland because governments in Kosovo and Ukraine show a particular interest in the Finnish education model to inform policy reforms. Participants were kindergarten teachers (n=177) from these three countries who were observed in their classrooms and asked to complete questionnaires. Results indicated variability in ECE quality at various levels, both within and across the three countries. Directions for future research and implications for practice and policy development in LMICs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined teachers' occupational well-being by identifying profiles based on teachers' self-ratings of work engagement as well as work-related effort and reward. It also did so by examining whether the identified subgroups differed with respect to teachers' self-reported occupational stress and emotional exhaustion as well as with respect to work-related resources such as the individual resource of work meaningfulness and the leader-level resource of the leader–follower relationship. The participants in the study were 321 Finnish elementary school teachers. The data were collected in spring 2021, that is, at the time when the COVID-19 pandemic was present, yet there were no national school closures. Three groups of teachers were identified with latent profile analysis: (1) teachers recognized as being poorly engaged with the highest effort and lowest reward (4.7%); (2) teachers recognized as being averagely engaged with higher effort than reward (32.1%); and (3) teachers recognized as being highly engaged with higher reward than effort (63.2%). The subsequent analyses examining the differences among the profile groups revealed, for example, that each profile group differed with respect to the individual resource of work meaningfulness and profile groups 2 and 3 differed with respect to the leader-level resource of the leader–follower relationship. Thus, the findings indicate that there are differences in the ways in which teachers are able to benefit from the work-related resources and how they cope with job-related demands during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Most previous studies of teaching styles and reading skills have been cross‐sectional. Longitudinal research is needed to clarify the direction of effects. The present longitudinal study examined the degree to which differences in teaching styles in the third grade predict the sixth‐grade reading performance. The consistency of the findings was addressed by comparing results across students in two countries (Finland and Estonia). Methods: A total of 1,057 students (50.9% boys) were followed from the third to sixth grade. Teaching styles of third‐grade teachers (N = 70) were examined as predictors of the development of reading (i.e., third‐grade to sixth‐grade reading fluency and comprehension). Results: Five patterns of third‐grade teaching practices were found across two countries: child‐centred style, teacher‐directed style, child‐dominated style, extreme child‐centred style, and mixed child‐centred and teacher‐directed style (mixed teaching style). The mixed teaching style and the child‐centred style in the third grade were related to the greatest increases in reading fluency from the third to sixth grade, over and above the contribution of age, gender and maternal education. Conclusions: The findings underscore the importance of the flexible use of child‐centred and teacher‐directed practices, which are both linked to the development of reading fluency during late primary school years. Highlights: What is already known about this topicA person‐oriented approach is an effective method to identify groups of teaching practices, known as teaching styles.Teaching styles have been differentially linked to reading skills, but the associations have been limited to cross‐sectional data.Finnish teachers apply effective teaching styles more often than Estonian teachers. What this paper addsThis paper adds to previous studies by examining longitudinal associations between teaching styles and reading skills.The study established the consistency of teaching styles between Finland and Estonia.The study found that mixed teaching style is beneficial for reading fluency development. Implications for theory, policy or practiceThe combinations of child‐centred practices and teacher‐directed practices are the most effective teaching styles for reading development.The beneficial effect is consistent across Finland and Estonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adapting instruction to individual students' needs is known to be effective, but there is a lack of evidence whether students' reading skills are associated with literacy instruction activities at classroom‐level. Both the content of the literacy instruction and teachers' instructional support through instructional management are considered. Methods: The data were collected in the context of Finland where first graders' reading skills show great variation at school entry but rapid progress. Students (n = 616) were individually tested on their reading skills, and literacy lessons in 35 classrooms were video recorded in the autumn of first grade. Multilevel path analyses were conducted to examine the classroom‐level associations between reading skills (accuracy and fluency) and three types of literacy instruction activities (coded from the video recordings). The number of students present and the teachers' work experience were controlled in the analyses. Results: The results indicated that, at classroom‐level, lower average reading skills were associated with more lesson time allocated to code‐focused activities such as decoding and spelling tasks in which instructional management was directed for the whole group. In turn, higher average reading skills in classrooms were associated with more lesson time allocated to individual or small group assignments. The reading skills were not associated with meaning‐focused activities such as text‐level reading activities and class discussions with the whole group. Conclusions: In early literacy lessons, students' reading skills were associated with teachers' implementation of different literacy instruction activities at classroom‐level. In classrooms with more students having already acquired basic decoding skills, teachers provided more classroom time for independent practice and individual support, which is likely to support consolidation of students' literacy skills. Highlights: What is already known about this topicStudents' reading skills vary greatly at the entry to primary school.Adapting both the content and amount of instructional support based on a student's skills has been shown to be effective, but the knowledge of these processes is limited into studying adaptations at the level of the individual student or specific learning situations. However, the students' skills at classroom‐level may also affect the instruction.In order to support students' reading skills development, both the content of the instruction and adequate support for learning are important. What this paper addsThis study is among the first to analyse classroom‐level associations between students' reading skills and literacy instruction activities in the lesson.Students learning to read have been shown to benefit from code‐focused activities with teacher support, whereas more advanced students have been shown to benefit from independently practicing their skills. This study showed that teachers typically engaged their students in whole group instruction on accurate decoding and spelling when the students reading skills were lower at classroom‐level (i.e. there were more students learning to read), whereas higher reading skills (i.e. more students that were able to read) were associated with more time spent in independent practicing.Higher skills of students in a classroom (i.e. more students that are able to read) may invite and offer more opportunities for the teacher to adapt instruction at the level of the individual student. Implications for theory, policy or practiceTeachers should sensitively observe the skills development of their students and adapt their instruction based on this information.Teachers' continued professional development on adapting literacy instruction activities and flexible planning of lessons according to their students' skills should be supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated cross-lagged associations between parental trust in a child's teacher and children's academic interest across Grades 1–4 in primary school. Parents rated trust in their child's teacher, and 576 children reported their interest in reading and math at each grade. The results showed that high parental trust in a child's teacher predicted the child's high interest in math. In addition, the child's high interest in reading in Grade 2 was related to the father's subsequent trust in the teacher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the association between teacher–child interaction quality and children's self‐regulation in Finnish and Portuguese toddler classrooms. The participants included 230 Finnish (M = 29; SD = 3 months) and 283 Portuguese (M = 30, SD = 4 months) toddlers and their teachers (n = 43 Finland; n = 29 Portugal). The children's behavioural self‐regulation (attention, working memory, and inhibition control) was individually tested, and the teachers evaluated the children's self‐regulation skills in the classroom. The quality of the teacher–child interactions (i.e., emotional and behavioural support and engaged support for learning) was evaluated using the CLASS‐Toddler observation instrument. The analyses were conducted with path models using a complex option. The results for Finland show that the engaged support for learning was positively associated with children's attention and inhibitory control, and emotional and behavioural support was positively associated with children's inhibitory control. For Portugal, engaged support for learning was positively associated with children's attention. The results aid in recognizing the characteristics of teacher support that is beneficial to the development of children's self‐regulation skills in two sociocultural contexts, hence being of relevance for teacher in‐ and pre‐service training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated bidirectional links between the quality of teacher–child relationships and children's interest and pre‐academic skills in literacy and math. Furthermore, differences in the patterns of bidirectionality between boys and girls were explored. Participants were 461 Finnish kindergarteners (6‐year‐olds) and their teachers (n = 48). Teachers reported their closeness and conflict with each child twice throughout the kindergarten year. Children rated their interest in literacy and math, and were tested on their pre‐academic skills. Cross‐lagged path models indicated that teacher‐perceived conflict predicted lower interest and pre‐academic skills in both literacy and math. Results were similar for boys and girls. Implications for reducing conflictual patterns of relationships, together with promoting other factors, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine associations between two aspects of teachers' occupational well-being, i.e., teaching-related stress and work engagement, and the quality of teacher–child interactions in Finnish kindergarten classrooms. Participants were 47 kindergarten teachers with their classrooms of 6-year-old children. Teacher–child interactions (i.e., emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support) were observed twice during the kindergarten year (fall and spring), using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS). In addition, teachers completed questionnaires on stress and work engagement. The results indicated that teaching-related stress negatively predicted the quality of emotional support and classroom organization while teacher's work engagement was positively associated with the quality of instructional support. Practice or Policy: The findings can be used to inform teacher education and professional development in order to promote in- and pre-service teachers' occupational well-being and support them in their work with children in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to explore what causes stress to day care center directors and what their coping strategies are. In addition, the study examined the extent to which directors experience work-related stress and burnout, and the factors associated with their work-related stress, engagement and recovery from work. Design/methodology/approach: A mixed method approach was used. Findings: The results showed that the main sources of directors' stress were connected to leading oneself, leading others, managing change and lack of social support. Moreover, the main coping strategies with stress were leading oneself, social support and leading others. In addition, both pre- and in-service leadership training played a significant role in the experience of stress. The nature of factors causing stress and coping strategies with stress may imply that directors need further support in self-management and developing their internal competences. Research limitations/implications: The present study has limitations that need to be considered when making generalizations. First, a small sample size limits the generalization of the findings. Second, the study relied solely on one source of information, i.e. directors' self-reports. Third, data were collected only at one time point at the end of the year when stress levels might have accumulated. Finally, the study has been done in the Finnish educational context where day care center directors' job description varies depending on municipality. Practical implications: The findings provide important information about the causes of directors' work-related stress as well as their coping strategies and about factors that might be related to those. Social implications: Because directors' stress impact on children's development and well-being through teachers' well-being, it is crucial to pay attention on directors' well-being and provide more support for them. Originality/value: The current study is among the few ones focusing on the stress of directors at early childhood education (ECE) settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLP) model, high individual academic performance in a particular subject is related to high self-concept in that subject, whereas high average classroom performance has a negative effect on self-concept. In the present study, data from Finnish primary school students in grade 3 (504 students), grade 4 (487 students), and grade 6 (365 students) are used to examine whether the assumptions of the BFLP effect model hold already in primary school. Furthermore, we examined gender differences in BFLP effect. The results showed that as expected students' high performance in literacy and in mathematics was related to high self-concept in the same subject. Support for the negative classroom effect was small and it depended on the school subject and student's gender. That is, a high average classroom performance already in grade 3 had a negative but small effect on boys' self-concept in mathematics. In literacy and among girls, only little support was found for the negative classroom effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to investigate the associations between teachers' observed emotional support and social competence among Finnish pre-schoolers (6-year-olds). The quality of emotional support was observed using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K in 47 preschool classrooms twice across the preschool year. Teachers rated children's social competence in autumn and again in spring, using the Multisource Assessment of Social Competence Scale (MASCS), which produced sum scores for cooperating skills, empathy, impulsivity, and disruptiveness. Consistent with the transactional model, we specified reciprocal (auto-regressive and cross-lagged) relationships within a Multilevel Structural Equation Models (MSEM) framework. The results showed that higher quality of emotional support in preschool autumn was related to more prosocial behaviours typical of the classroom during spring of the preschool year. Children's antisocial behaviours typical of the preschool classroom were not associated with quality of emotional support or vice versa. The results emphasize the importance of responsive and sensitive classroom interactions in promoting prosocial behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined associations between classroom-level reading fluency, comprehension, interest in reading, and teaching practices. Participants were 466 children from 21 classrooms. Reading fluency and interest were assessed at the beginning and end of Grade 1, reading comprehension at the end of Grade 1. Teaching practices were observed with the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM). Teachers were more likely to use teacher-directed methods in classrooms where children had poorer initial reading fluency. In classrooms with mostly child-centered methods, children showed better reading fluency, comprehension, and higher interest, whereas in classrooms with predominately teacher-directed practices, children had lower reading comprehension at the end of Grade 1. Findings highlight the need for teacher education programs to incorporate discussions about the benefits and disadvantages of different teaching methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cross-lagged longitudinal study examines the evocative impact of a child’s psychological adjustment on teachers’ affective response and instructional support for a child, and the influence this support and response has on the child’s subsequent adjustment. A hundred and seventeen Finnish teachers self-rated the instructional support they gave, and the affect they experienced while teaching 307 children from school grades 1, 2 and 3. Teachers also rated the level of prosocial and externalizing problem behaviour among children. Results showed that the more children exhibited externalizing problem behaviour in grades 1 and 2, teachers not only did provide more instructional support for them a year later but, at the same time, they reported feeling less positive affect. Low levels of positive affect were also reported by teachers a year later with regard to children who had received more instructional support from them in grades 1 and 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the cross-lagged associations between teacher-student relationships and problem behaviors in a sample of 440 Finnish students (half of them identified as being at risk of reading difficulties). The degree to which these associations were moderated by a child’s gender, academic performance, risk for reading difficulties, parental education, and having the same teacher over 2 years was examined. The teachers evaluated the students’ problem behaviors and reported closeness and conflict with a particular student. The results showed that the higher the students scored on externalizing problems in Grade 4, the more conflict teachers reported 2 years later. Moderator analyses revealed that internalizing problems predicted higher levels of closeness for boys only. Conflict predicted internalizing problems among students who had the same teacher across the 2 years. The results emphasize the importance of investigating the transactional links in different subgroups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study extends research on classroom quality profiles by examining the differences between profiles with respect to children’s development in pre-academic skills and motivation across the kindergarten year. Teacher-child interactions were observed in 49 Finnish kindergarten classrooms using the CLASS Pre-K instrument. Based on prior identification of latent profiles of classroom quality, subgroup analyses on children’s data were carried out on three profiles representing high Emotional Support and Classroom Organisation and intermediate Instructional Support (Profile 1), higher-intermediate Emotional Support and Classroom Organisation and lower-intermediate Instructional Support (Profile 2), and intermediate Emotional Support and Classroom Organisation and low Instructional Support (Profile 3). Children’s (n = 504) pre-reading and pre-math skills were tested at the beginning and end of the kindergarten year, and their task behaviours were rated by the testers in assessment situations. The children’s vocabulary, number knowledge and interest in reading and math were measured at the end of the kindergarten year. The results indicated a significant increase in children’s number sequence skills and a significant decrease in avoidance and helplessness across the kindergarten year in Profile 1 compared to children in Profile 2. In contrast, a significant increase was found in helplessness and social dependence for children in Profile 3 compared to the other two profiles. Moreover, the children in Profile 2 showed a significant decrease in anxiety compared to those in Profile 3, whereas the children in Profile 3 showed less interest in reading than the children in the other profiles and had lower vocabulary scores than the children in the Profile 2 at the end of the kindergarten year. The results provide a new understanding about the effects of different classroom quality profiles on child outcomes, particularly in regard to motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Findings: The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which the quality of teacher–child interactions and teachers’ self-reported curriculum emphases are related to children’s reading skill development during their 1st school year. To accomplish this, we assessed the reading skills of 1,029 Finnish children (Mage = 85.77 months) twice during Grade 1, and the children’s teachers (n = 91) completed questionnaires concerning their literacy-related curriculum emphases. In addition, teacher–child interactions in terms of emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support were observed in 29 classrooms. The results of multilevel modeling showed that a high global quality of teacher–child interactions was positively associated with improved children’s reading skills at the end of Grade 1. In addition, a teacher emphasis on comprehension and production skills was related to better reading skills via teacher–child interactions. Domain-specific analyses revealed that emotional support and classroom organization in particular were related to better reading skills.Practice or Policy: The present study adds to previous research by showing that children had better reading skills at the end of their 1st school year in classrooms in which the teachers were warm, responsive, and sensitive to children’s needs and provided well-planned activities, clear rules, and expectations for behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study reports on the psychometric properties of the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM) in Finnish and Estonian first and third grade classrooms. The observation data were collected from 91 first grade teachers and 70 third grade teachers. Teachers' curriculum goals, teaching experience and the classroom size were measured also. The results of confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence of the three-factor model (management, climate, and instruction) for each dimension—child-centred, teacher-directed, and child-dominated—in both grades. The reliability of the dimensions and sub-scales was good, and some evidence was also found for criterion validity. The findings imply that ECCOM is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring teaching practices in primary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the role of family-related (mother’s education, depressive symptoms and child’s gender) and kindergarten-related (teacher’s experience, teaching practices and class size) factors in mothers’ and teachers’ mutual trust in Estonia and Finland. Six hundred eighteen (206 Estonian and 412 Finnish) mothers of kindergarten children and their teachers (26 Estonian, 49 Finnish) were participated in the study. Both mothers and teachers filled in the questionnaire on trust; teachers’ teaching practices were observed with early childhood classroom observation measure. The results of multilevel modelling showed that mothers in both countries trusted more in teachers who used child-centred rather than teacher-directed practices. Teachers indicated higher trust in highly educated mothers and mothers of girls. Estonian teachers with longer work experience trusted more in mothers than less experienced teachers, and Finnish teachers trusted less in mothers reporting more depressive symptoms. The results emphasise the importance of both family-related and kindergarten-related factors in the enhancement of mutual trust. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the present study, we examined the extent to which the responses of teachers and mothers toward a particular child are similar in respect to their instructional support and affect, and whether child characteristics predict these responses. The data of 373 Finnish child–teacher–mother triads (178 girls, 195 boys) were analysed. Teachers and mothers reported their instructional support and affective responses toward a child in the school/homework context in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4. At the beginning of Grade 1, the children’s performance in reading and math was tested, and teachers evaluated the children’s externalizing and internalizing problem behaviour. The results demonstrated that mothers and teachers showed similar instructional support and affective responses toward a particular child at the end of Grade 1. Moreover, children’s poor performance in reading and math at the beginning of Grade 1 was associated with high amounts of both teachers’ and mothers’ instructional support at the end of Grade 1, while children’s externalizing problem behaviour was strongly related particularly to teachers’ but also to mothers’ negative affective responses at the end of Grade 1. The results provide evidence for the evocative impact of child characteristics on the child’s interpersonal environment at the start of child’s school career. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study followed 156 Finnish children (Mage  = 7.25 years) during the first grade of primary school to examine to what extent parent- and teacher-rated temperament impacts children's math and reading skill development during the first grade, and the extent to which this impact would be mediated by teachers' interaction styles with the children. The results showed that the impact of children's low task orientation and negative emotionality on their math skill development was mediated via teachers' behavioral control and, among girls, also by psychological control. The negative impact of children's inhibition on math skill development, in turn, was not mediated via teachers' interaction styles. Temperament did not predict the children's reading skill development during first grade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Findings:The purpose of this study was to identify the developmental trajectories of impulsive behavior among 378 Finnish children who were followed from kindergarten to 4th grade. In addition to ratings of children’s impulsivity, the analyses included measures of motivation, cognitive skills, socioemotional adjustment, and teacher–student relationship. Four latent groups were identified that differed in the level and change of the children’s impulsive behavior across time: (a) a group with low impulsivity, (b) a group with decreasing impulsivity, (c) a group with moderate impulsivity, and (d) a small group with a contradictory trajectory showing an upward trend in impulsivity. The decreasing group showed compromised behavioral regulation in kindergarten but not thereafter, and it was the poorest performing group in reading. Both the moderate and decreasing groups received negative ratings from their teachers with respect to socioemotional adjustment and relationships with the teacher. The moderate group predominantly included boys, whereas the low impulsivity group had a higher ratio of girls.Practice or Policy:By linking the different trajectories of impulse control development to children’s socioemotional adjustment and teacher–student relationships in a meaningful way, the findings highlight the importance of behavioral regulation skills in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Research Findings:This study examined the extent to which observed classroom quality and teacher stress are associated with children's social competence in classrooms of 6-year-old children (kindergartners in Finland). Assessments of academic pre-skills were available for a total of 1,268 children, and kindergarten teacher ratings of social competence were available for a total of 1,222 children. The kindergarten teachers (N = 137) also provided ratings of their work-related stress. Observations of classroom quality (i.e., emotional and instructional support and classroom organization) were conducted in 49 kindergarten classrooms using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. The results of multilevel modeling showed that the higher the observed instructional support in the classroom and the lower the level of stress a teacher reported, the more empathy and less disruptiveness the children displayed in that particular classroom. High teacher stress was also associated with higher impulsivity and lower cooperation skills among the children.Practice or Policy:The results emphasize the importance of a teacher's well-being and instructional quality in kindergartens for children's social skills. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Research Findings: The aim of the present study was to examine classroom quality profiles of kindergarten classrooms using a person-centered approach and to analyze these patterns in regard to teacher and classroom characteristics. Observations of the domains of Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support were conducted in 49 Finnish kindergarten classrooms utilizing the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (R. C. Pianta, K. M. LaParo, & B. K. Hamre, 2008). In addition, questionnaire data on classroom and teacher characteristics, as well as Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (D. Stipek & P. Byler, 2004) observational ratings, were used in the analyses. Latent profiling analysis was utilized to identify different profiles of classroom quality. Four latent profiles of classroom quality were identified that differed from one another most clearly in the domain of Emotional Support. Profile 1 represented a generally high level and Profile 4 a generally low level of classroom quality compared to the other profiles, whereas the medium-quality Profiles 2 and 3 showed varying levels of support in the assessed dimensions of quality. Only a few differences emerged among the profiles in classroom and teacher characteristics: The teachers in Profile 4 provided the least literacy instruction and had the least amount of work experience of all of the teachers. The findings using the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure indicated that child-centered practices were predominant among the profiles of higher classroom quality. Practice or Policy: The results of this study can be used to recognize kindergarten teachers' professional strengths and weaknesses and to support teachers' professional development with the aid of pedagogical interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]