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Edema factor (EF) is one of the major secretory proteins of anthrax bacteria along with protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF). Edema factor is a calmodulin-and calcium-dependent adenylate cyclase that increases intracellular levels of cAMP. Intracellular trafficking of EF occurs through PA by binding to ATR/CMG2 receptors, which are also involved in other physiological functions of cells. cAMP is a secondary messenger which activates multiple signaling cascades involved in the cytokinetics of actin molecules and cell junction formation. The present study evaluated the effect of EF on growth and angiogenesis patterns in chicken embryos in the in ovo model. Angiogenesis in the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of an embryonated chicken egg was decreased and embryo growth was delayed by EF despite the absence of trafficking moiety PA, which is required for transferring the EF molecule inside the cell. Angiogenesis inhibition and embryo growth retardation indicate the use of an alternative receptor by EF to modulate these cellular functions. Additionally, docking was performed between EF as a ligand and hepatocyte growth factor receptor (cMET) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptors, which are mainly involved in growth and angiogenesis. The analysis revealed a very strong binding of EF to cMET receptor (in terms of the number of hydrogen bonds and energy) compared to its ligand hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which indicates the use of cMET receptor by EF and induction of angiogenesis and embryo growth retardation possibly by competitive inhibition of HGF ligand or receptormediated endocytosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A bidirectional axial‐flow impulse turbine installed in an oscillating water column raises the question of damping at different wave conditions. This article reports unsteady performances of such a turbine in an airflow test rig. The rig has a piston‐cylinder arrangement, and the piston, when reciprocating, generates the oscillatory airflow. At a very low wave height (piston stroke length, <0.4 m), the turbine speed is very low. Time series analysis of pressure drop and speed are reported for higher stroke lengths, which shows the rate of increase and decrease in velocity of the turbine. Furthermore, the turbine pressure coefficient and the damping characteristics of the test rig chamber were estimated. Finally, the chamber damping verifies that the turbine‐chamber coupling effect is reciprocal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared the therapeutic efficacy of levofloxacin, ornidazole and alpha tocopherol combination and prostaglandin F2a (PGF2a) in longstanding cases of endometritis and evaluated their impact on Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and Interleukin-10 (IL-10) transcript level in peripheral blood leukocytes. Eighteen endometritic crossbred Jersey cows were randomly allotted to three groups (six in each) viz. Group I (levofloxacin combo treatment I/U), group II (PGF2a treatment I/M), group III (no treatment, control), and group IV (six non-endometritic healthy cyclic) was taken for comparison study. The clinical efficacy was assessed by haematological study (TLC: Total leukocyte count; DC: Differential count), polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) count in uterine cytology and relative mRNA expression of IL-6 and IL-10 in peripheral blood leukocytes before and after treatment with respect to conception rate following single and second inseminations. Group I and II registered significant increase in TLC and neutrophil count. PMN cytology was increased two and three fold in group I and II, respectively. The IL-6 transcript level was increased by 2.5 and 4.6 fold while that of IL-10 increased by 3.7 and 5.2 fold in group I and II, respectively. Conception rate across group I to IV following single insemination was found to be 66.67%, 50%, 16.67%, and 83.33% and their corresponding values following second insemination were 66.67%, 83.33%, 16.67%, and 83.33%, respectively. Thus, the administration of levofloxacin combo and PGF2a might have better conception rate following first and second insemination, respectively. Our study also reveals that PGF2a could register better clearance of bacteria through stronger PMN cell and cytokine activity in post-treatment period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is, arguably, the animal disease with the most devastating global economic impact owing in part, to the severe trade restrictions imposed upon affected countries and regions. South Asia is one of the regions where widespread lineages of the FMDV virus (FMDV) have emerged. Here, we performed an integrative phylogenetic analysis of all FMDV serotypes (A, O and Asia‐1) circulating in southern Asia, including viral sequences collected until 2013. Our results describe the occurrence of FMD caused by different serotypes and lineages, focusing in the cycles where a specific lineage predominates within a region for a protracted period and then are rapidly or progressively replaced by an emergent or re‐emergent strain that is introduced from an adjacent region. Transmission between the two main regions in southern Asia (the Indian subcontinent and the region comprised by Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan) has been limited. Results of time divergence estimation of lineages that currently circulate in this region indicate that the most recent common ancestor of endemic lineages are: 1992 [1989–1995] for lineage O/PanAsia; 1997 [1995–1999] for PanAsia2; 2001 [1998–2004] for O/Ind2001; 2001 [2000–2002] for A/Iran‐05; 1990 [1988–1991] for A/G‐18 (G‐VII); 2003 [2000–2006] for Asia‐1 Sindh08 and 2002 [1999–2004] for Asia‐1 G‐VIII. We estimated the mean of the overall substitution rate of the VP1 coding region (substitution/site/year) for serotype O (5.95 × 10−3), serotype A (1.19 × 10−2) and serotype Asia‐1 (3.08 × 10−3). The potential factors driving the lineage turnover are discussed. Our results provide insights into the ecological and evolutionary factors driving the emergence of FMDV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper describes the investigation of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in a private pig farm at Kotty in Kollam district of Kerala during October 2013. During the clinical phase, severe vesicular lesions on snout and skin around the coronary bands were observed in pigs. A total of 48 serum samples and 12 clinical samples (ruptured snout epithelia) were collected. All serum samples were subjected to indirect 3AB nonstructural protein (NSP) ELISA and liquid phase blocking (LPB) ELISA. In 3AB NSP ELISA, all serum samples were found positive for NSP antibodies indicating infection. In LPB ELISA, 42 of 48 (87.5%) pigs were found to have protective log10 antibody titre of ≥1.8 against FMD virus serotypes O, A and Asia 1. All the clinical materials were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA as well as in multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). In VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis, the serotype O isolates causing the outbreak were found to conglomerate within Ind2001 lineage. Pigs infected with FMD may pose rigorous threat to other susceptible domestic livestock as they exhale enormous quantity of virus. As a consequence, they should be included under prophylactic vaccination and surveillance programmes ongoing in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is an important transboundary disease with substantial economic impacts. Although between‐herd transmission of the disease has been well studied, studies focusing on within‐herd transmission using farm‐level outbreak data are rare. The aim of this study was to estimate parameters associated with within‐herd transmission, host physiological factors and FMD virus (FMDV) persistence using data collected from an outbreak that occurred at a large, organized dairy farm in India. Of 1,836 regularly vaccinated, adult dairy cattle, 222 had clinical signs of FMD over a 39‐day period. Assuming homogenous mixing, a frequency‐dependent compartmental model of disease transmission was built. The transmission coefficient and basic reproductive number were estimated to be between 16.2–18.4 and 67–88, respectively. Non‐pregnant animals were more likely to manifest clinical signs of FMD as compared to pregnant cattle. Based on oropharyngeal fluid (probang) sampling and FMDV‐specific RT‐PCR, four of 36 longitudinally sampled animals (14%) were persistently infected carriers 10.5 months post‐outbreak. There was no statistical difference between subclinical and clinically infected animals in the duration of the carrier state. However, prevalence of NSP‐ELISA antibodies differed significantly between subclinical and clinically infected animals 12 months after the outbreak with 83% seroprevalence amongst clinically infected cattle compared to 69% of subclinical animals. This study further elucidates within‐herd FMD transmission dynamics during the acute‐phase and characterizes duration of FMDV persistence and seroprevalence of FMD under natural conditions in an endemic setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and globally significant viral disease principally of cloven-hoofed livestock species. The present study describes the results of molecular epidemiologic investigation of FMD in pigs across various states of India between 2008 and 2014. During this period, a total of 37 clinical epithelial samples (vesicle/foot/snout epithelium) of FMD-suspected pigs were tested in a serotype differentiating antigen detection ELISA and samples found negative were further subjected to multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). A total of 29 (78.37%) samples were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA and 8 ELISA-negative samples were subsequently found positive for serotype O in mRT-PCR. The VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the involvement of O/ME-SA/Ind2001 lineage in the outbreaks. The pig isolates clustered with the contemporary virus isolates collected from bovine indicating a close genetic relationship and therefore signifying inter-species transmission during the outbreaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The goal of this study was to characterize the properties and duration of the foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) carrier state and associated serological responses subsequent to vaccination and naturally occurring infection at two farms in northern India. Despite previous vaccination of cattle in these herds, clinical signs of FMD occurred in October 2013 within a subset of animals at the farms containing juvenile‐yearling heifers and steers (Farm A) and adult dairy cattle (Farm B). Subsequent to the outbreak, FMD virus (FMDV) asymptomatic carriers were identified in both herds by seroreactivity to FMDV non‐structural proteins and detection of FMDV genomic RNA in oropharyngeal fluid. Carriers’ seroreactivity and FMDV genome detection status were subsequently monitored monthly for 23 months. The mean extinction time of the carrier state was 13.1 ± 0.2 months, with extinction having occurred significantly faster amongst adult dairy cattle at Farm B compared to younger animals at Farm A. The rate of decrease in the proportion of carrier animals was calculated to be 0.07 per month. Seroprevalence against FMDV non‐structural proteins decreased over the course of the study period, but was found to increase transiently following repeated vaccinations. These data provide novel insights into viral and host factors associated with the FMDV carrier state under natural conditions. The findings reported herein may be relevant to field veterinarians and governmental regulatory entities engaged in FMD response and control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The yak and mithun husbandry in India is confronted with several challenges including the prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). The present study was initiated to investigate FMD outbreaks in semi-domesticated mithun and yak population in various parts of India. A total of 64 clinical samples (vesicle/tongue/foot epithelium/fluid) from mithun and 6 from yak were collected from suspected FMD outbreaks during 2008-2013. Supernatants of the homogenized clinical samples were tested in a serotype discriminating antigen detection ELISA and ELISA-negative samples were further subjected to multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR). A total of 45 mithun samples and only 1 yak sample were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA. A total of 12 ELISA-negative samples from mithun and 4 from yak were later on found positive for serotype O in mRT-PCR. The phylogenetic analysis based on VP1 genome indicated the involvement of both O/ME-SA/PanAsia and O/ME-SA/Ind2001 lineages of serotype O in those outbreaks. These viruses were genetically similar to those contemporary virus isolates responsible for FMD in domestic livestock indicating a situation of virus sharing among different species of domestic and semi-domestic animals. Thus, mithuns and yaks should be synchronously considered and targeted along with cattle for the effective control of the disease in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic vaccination programme is ongoing in India to control the three prevailing serotypes (A, O, Asia1) of foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) virus. Under the programme, more than 120 million bovine (term bovine applicable to both cattle and buffalo in this study) population of 221 of the 666 districts in the country are being bi-annually vaccinated with trivalent vaccine since 2010. Although clinical disease has reduced in these districts because of the systematic vaccinations, an abrupt increase in the number of FMD cases was recorded in 2013. Hence, a longitudinal field study was conducted in the year 2014 to estimate the serological herd immunity level in bovines, the impact of systematic vaccinations and field efficacy of the vaccines used. Serum samples ( n = 115 963) collected from 295 districts of the 18 states of the country were analysed to estimate antibody titres against structural proteins of the three serotypes. The efficacy of the vaccine was demonstrated in the control group (group-D) where animals of the group were identified by ear tags for the purpose of repeated sampling after vaccination. Progressive building of the herd immunity in the field after systematic vaccination was demonstrated. The mean antibody titre against the serotypes O, A and Asia1 was estimated as log10 1.93 (95% CI 1.92-1.93), 2.02 (2.02-2.02) and 2.02 (2.02-2.02), respectively, in the states covered under the control programme. However, in other states herd immunity was significantly low [mean titre log10 1.68 (95% CI 1.67-1.69), 1.77 (1.76-1.78) and 1.85 (1.84-1.86) against the three serotypes]. Inverse relationship between the herd immunity and FMD incidences was observed the states following different vaccination practices. The study helped in demarcation of FMD risk zones in the country with low herd immunity. Estimation of herd immunity kinetics in the field helped in refining the vaccination schedule under the control programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to assess the impact of Foot-and-mouth Disease ( FMD) outbreak in cattle and buffaloes on farming community in Kolar district, Karnataka state, India. Primary data were collected using pre-tested schedule from 178 sample farms using multistage random cluster sample technique. The results revealed that 78% of surveyed villages were affected with FMD. The FMD incidence risk was high across the herd sizes, whereas the mortality risk was high in small herds. In indigenous cattle, the highest loss due to FMD was distress sale (208 USD) followed by other losses, whereas, in Crossbred cattle, the highest loss was mortality loss (515 USD) followed by distress sale (490 USD), milk yield loss (327 USD), treatment cost (38 USD) and extra labour engagement expenses for nursing of FMD-affected bovines (30 USD). In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per affected animal was 440 USD and 513 USD, respectively. A very high variability in the loss per animal was observed across the type of losses in the Crossbred cattle, and it may be due to differences in age of the FMD-infected animal, value of the animal, milking stage, lactation levels, herd sizes and labour engagement levels, etc. In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per animal was 639 USD and 1008 USD, respectively. The sensitivity analysis for 5% change in price revealed that the mean total loss per animal was positively correlated with price. Further, the social impact elicitation revealed that majority of the livestock owners perceived FMD had caused permanent asset loss, which in turn increased psychological stress of the family. The estimated losses and social impact due to FMD signify the importance of the intervention to control the disease and thus socio-economic gain to the farmer and society at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease viruses are often restricted to specific geographical regions and spread to new areas may lead to significant epidemics. Phylogenetic analysis of sequences of the VP1 genome region of recent outbreak viruses from Libya and Saudi Arabia has revealed a lineage, O-Ind-2001, normally found in the Indian subcontinent. This paper describes the characterization of field viruses collected from these cases and provides information about a new real-time RT- PCR assay that can be used to detect viruses from this lineage and discriminate them from other endemic FMD viruses that are co-circulating in North Africa and western Eurasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Porcine sapelovirus (PSV) A belongs to the genus Sapelovirus, family Picornaviridae. PSV infections in pigs have been reported from European countries, United States, Japan, China, Korea and Brazil. The virus has been isolated/detected from faeces of healthy pigs as well as those affected with diarrhoea, respiratory signs, encephalitis, skin lesions and fertility disorders. This study was planned to investigate whether PSV is prevalent among pigs in India and to characterize PSV encountered in the study population. The study revealed that five of 70 (7.14%) faecal samples were found positive for PSV using RT‐PCR. Three viruses were successfully isolated from faecal samples using IB‐RS‐2 cell line. Complete genome sequencing and analysis of one Indian PSV isolate revealed highest homology (88%) with V13 strain from England. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete polyprotein nucleotide sequences of 14 strains of PSV classified the viruses into four distinct clades. This first report from India adds to our knowledge on genetic diversity of PSV detected so far among pigs in different countries. A large‐scale surveillance of the virus is required to understand its genomic diversity and economic impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human influenza A viruses have been the cause of enormous socio-economic losses worldwide. In order to combat such a notorious pathogen, hemagglutinin protein (HA) has been a preferred target for generation of neutralizing-antibodies as potent therapeutic/ diagnostic agents. In the present study, recombinant anti-HA single chain variable fragment antibodies were constructed using the phage-display technology to aid in diagnosis and treatment of human influenza A virus infections. Spleen cells of mice hyper-immunized with A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1) virus were used as the source for recombinant antibody (rAb) production. The antigen-binding phages were quantified after six rounds of bio-panning against A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1), A/California/07/2009 (H1N1)-like, or A/Udorn/307/72(H3N2) viruses. The maximum phage yield was for the A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1), however, considerable cross-reactivity was observed for the other virus strains as well. The HA-specific polyclonal rAb preparation was subjected to selection of single clones for identification of high reactive relatively conserved epitopes. The high-affinity rAbs were tested against certain known conserved HA epitopes by peptide ELISA. Three recombinant mAbs showed reactivity with both the H1N1 strains and one (C5) showed binding with all the three viral strains. The C5 antibody was thus used for development of an ELISA test for diagnosis of influenza virus infection. Based on the sample size in the current analysis, the ELISA test demonstrated 83.9% sensitivity and 100% specificity. Thus, the ELISA, developed in our study, may prove as a cheaper alternative to the presently used real time RT-PCR test for detection of human influenza A viruses in clinical specimens, which will be beneficial, especially in the developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 41 clinical samples (vesicle/tongue/foot/nasal epithelium) from Indian gaur, deer, spotted deer, nilgai, chowsinga, bison, black buck, elephant, sambar deer were collected in 50% phosphate buffered saline/glycerol medium (pH-7.5) during suspected FMD outbreaks. Supernatants of homogenized clinical samples were used in a serotype differentiating antigen detection ELISA and samples found negative were further subjected to multiplex PCR (mPCR). A total of 3/11 (27.2%) samples from Indian gaur, 2/7 (28.5%) chital deer, 5/5 (100%) nilgai, 2/2 (100%) black buck were found positive for serotype O in antigen detection ELISA. A total of 3 ELISA-negative samples from spotted deer, 2 from bison and 2 from sambar deer were found positive for serotype O in mPCR. The VP1 region-based phylogenetic analysis indicated the involvement of both O/ME-SA/Ind2001 and PanAsia lineage of serotype O in the outbreaks. The wildlife species infected with FMD may pose further threat to the surrounding domestic livestock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an economically important disease and a whole-virus inactivated trivalent virus vaccine is the mainstay for controlling the disease in India. The protective humoral immune response to FMD vaccination is a complex, but, tightly regulated process mediated by the interplay of interleukins (IL). Based on the specific role of IL6 and 21 in adaptive immune response, we hypothesized that inactivated trivalent FMD vaccine would stimulate IL6 and 21 expression in the circulating lymphocytes. The expressions of IL6 and 21 were assayed on 0, 28, 60, 90, and 120 d post-vaccination (DPV) by quantitative PCR (qPCR) with simultaneous assessment of FMDV antibody titer by liquid phase blocking ELISA. The results revealed that the peak expression of IL6 and 21 was on DPV 28 which correlated well with the FMDV antibody titer and plummeted to the prevaccination titer level by 60 DPV. As IL21 is the final effector of antibody production as compared to IL6, we investigated the expression of IL21 in calves that had protective titer (>1.8) with the unprotected group (<1.8). Expression of IL21 on 28 DPV was numerically higher in the protected than that of the unprotected group of calves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large outbreak of cholera reported during April-July 2009 in the Kendrapada district of Odisha, India was investigated. Forty-one rectal swabs and 41 water samples, collected from diarrhoeal patients and from different villages were bacteriologically analysed for the isolation of bacterial enteriopathogens, antibiogram profile and detection of various toxic genes. The bacteriological analysis of rectal swabs and environmental water samples revealed the presence of V. cholerae O1 Ogawa biotype El Tor. The V. cholerae strains were resistant to ciprofloxacin, co-trimoxazole, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, ampicillin, furazolidone and nalidixic acid. The multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay on V. cholerae strains revealed the presence of ctxA and tcpA genes. The mismatch amplification of mutation assay (MAMA) PCR on clinical and environmental isolates of V. cholerae revealed that the strains were El Tor biotype, which harboured the ctxB gene of the classical strain. The random amplified polymorphic DNA PCR analysis and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis results indicated that the V. cholerae isolates belonged to the same clone. This investigation gives a warning that the El Tor variant of V. cholerae has spread to the coastal district causing a large outbreak that requires close monitoring and surveillance on diarrhoeal outbreaks in Odisha. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in India and causes severe economic loss. Status of FMD in the country for five fiscal years is presented. Outbreaks were more in number in 2007-2008 than 2010-2011. Three serotypes of FMD virus (O, A and Asia1) are prevalent. Serotype O was responsible for 80% of the confirmed outbreaks/cases, whereas Asia1 and A caused 12% and 8%, respectively. Geographical region-wise assessment indicated varying prevalence rate in different regions viz; 43% in Eastern region, 31.5% in Southern region, 11.6% in North-eastern region, 5% Central region, 4.4% Western region and 4% in Northern region. Highest number of outbreaks/cases was recorded in the month of September and lowest in June. Emergence and re-emergence of different genotypes/lineages within the serotypes were evident in real-time investigation carried out from time to time. Continues antigenic divergence in serotype A resulted in change in the vaccine strain in 2009. As on date, all genetic diversity within the serotypes is well tolerated by the vaccine strains. Unrestricted animal movements in the country play a major role in the spread of FMD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India is endemic for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), and goats constitute the second largest susceptible population of domestic livestock. FMD surveillance and control strategies in the country largely ignore small ruminants, known to be critical in the epidemiology of the disease. Here, serological investigations were carried out to generate estimates of antibody prevalence in goats of Orissa state to both non-structural (NSP-Ab) and structural proteins (SP-Ab) of FMD. The apparent overall NSP-Ab and SP-Ab seroprevalences were 38% and 20.7%, respectively, which signifies a very high level of FMD virus circulation in the goat population despite the lack of clinical signs in this species. The apparent prevalence of NSP-Ab and SP-Ab was positively correlated in the sampling areas. Interestingly, the values found for NSP-Ab prevalence were almost consistently higher than those found for SP-Ab prevalence. This could have been attributable to either issues related to sensitivity and specificity of the test systems employed or differences in the post-infection kinetics of NSP- and SP-Ab. The pattern that emerged from SP-Ab analysis indicated goats being infected with all three prevalent serotypes (O, A and Asia 1) and reinforces the concept that non-vaccinated goats can be exploited as tracer animals for detecting serotypes involved in outbreaks. The results underscore the requirement to bring caprine species under comprehensive surveillance and vaccination campaigns to check silent amplification, excretion and transmission of the virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia 1, which caused outbreaks of disease in Asia during 2003-2007. Since 2004, the region affected by outbreaks of this serotype has increased from disease-endemic countries in southern Asia (Afghanistan, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan) northward to encompass Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, several regions of the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, Eastern Russia, and North Korea. Phylogenetic analysis of complete virus capsid protein 1 (VP1) gene sequences demonstrated that the FMDV isolates responsible for these outbreaks belonged to 6 groups within the Asia 1 serotype. Some contemporary strains were genetically closely related to isolates collected historically from the region as far back as 25 years ago. Our analyses also indicated that some viruses have spread large distances between countries in Asia within a short time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

H9N2 avian influenza viruses are endemic in domestic poultry in Asia and are grouped into three major sublineages represented by their prototype strains A/Duck/Hong Kong/Y280/97 (Y280-like), A/Quail/Hong Kong/G1/97 (G1-like) and A/Chicken/Korea/38349-p96323/96 (Korean-like). To understand the genetic relationship of Indian viruses, we determined the partial nucleotide sequence of five H9N2 avian influenza viruses isolated from chicken in India during 2003–2004 and compared them with H9N2 sequences available in GenBank. Deduced amino acid sequence analysis revealed that four isolates shared an R–S–S–R/G motif at the cleavage site of HA, representing low pathogenicity in chickens, while one virus harbors an R–S–N–R/G motif at the same position. All the viruses maintained the human-like motif 226Lysine (H3 numbering) at the HA receptor binding site. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 50% of the genes (HA, NA, NP and M) were similar to G1-like viruses, whereas the remaining genes of the Indian isolates formed a separate, not yet defined, sublineage in the Eurasian lineage. Our finding provides evidence of a novel reassortant H9N2 genotype of G1-like viruses circulating in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus were reported for the first time in India during February 2006. Herein, we have sequenced and analyzed the PB2 genes of five influenza virus isolates obtained from three affected states (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) in India during the outbreaks. In the phylogenetic analysis, the Indian isolates were grouped in the mixed-migratory bird sub-lineage of the Eurasian lineage. From the phylogenetic tree, it is evident that viruses were probably introduced to India from China via Europe because they share a direct ancestral relationship with the Indian isolates. The virus might have spread through migratory waterfowls that survived the HPAI H5N1 infection. These viruses were able to replicate in cultured cells of avian and mammalian hosts and posses lysine at position 627 of the PB2 protein, indicating that they might be able to cross the host barrier to infect mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]