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Seawater intrusion (SWI) is threatening coastal aquifers and farmland productivity worldwide. Although this phenomenon naturally occurs in coastal areas, it is intensified by anthropogenic activities such as groundwater pumping and land reclamation that cause a lowering of the hydraulic head and land subsidence. Moreover, the consequences of climate change such as sea level rise, increase of the mean temperature and the shifting of rainfall events to tropical regimes, have strong negative effects on groundwater quality and agriculture. Countermeasures against SWI are needed to maintain agricultural productivity and protect the freshwater resources in coastal areas. In the low‐lying farmlands surrounding the southern Venice Lagoon, in northern Italy, SWI is exacerbated by land subsidence, the presence of sandy paleochannels connected to the lagoon subsurface, seawater encroachment into the river estuaries, the presence of fossil brine waters and peat deposits. This study provides a detailed hydrogeological and geochemical characterisation of an experimental agricultural field affected by SWI located in this area using a large dataset collected over the 4 years between 2019 and 2022. Furthermore, it presents the results of novel intervention established across the farmland in 2021 to mitigate saltwater contamination. This intervention involved a controlled discharge of freshwater supplied by a reclamation channel through a 200 m‐long drainpipe buried 1.5 m below the field surface along a well‐preserved sandy paleochannel. The interpretation of the collected data demonstrates that the freshwater recharge carried out in 2021 and 2022 effectively reduced the groundwater salinity along the paleochannel. Moreover, statistical analyses highlighted that a certain lateral spread of freshwater occurred too, although the variability of the monitored parameters in the sites located outside the sandy body was only partially explained by the drain activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The benefits of using cover crops for improving soil and water quality are well known. Less clear is whether cover crops, especially those forming a taproot system, can favor solute transport down to the groundwater by modifying soil hydraulic properties and solute dynamics. In this study, we employed 12 lysimeters to conduct a comparative analysis between a taproot cover crop, specifically forage radish (FR), and bare soil (BS), under three water table management conditions. Our objective was to evaluate whether the enhancement of root‐derived macroporosity could have modified water and solute dynamics, and offset the benefits provided by FR that is commonly used to mitigate solute leaching. A tracer solution of bromide (Br−) was added to lysimeters, and solute flux concentrations were determined at different depths during a 25‐day test. Soil moisture and pressure heads were monitored. Water and solute transport parameters were estimated by inverse modeling using HYDRUS‐1D. A complementary laboratory experiment was performed to quantify the effect of FR root apparatus on the macropore structure by using noninvasive X‐ray microtomography (µCT). Results showed that the growth of FR within the lysimeters induced alterations in water and solute dynamics compared with BS. This is primarily attributed to its proficiency as solute scavenger, with an uptake capacity of up to 47% of the total injected tracer. Our comparative analysis instead revealed subtle differences in soil structure and hydraulic properties brought about by the presence of FR. Major changes were observed for the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), which increased from an average of 8.4–49.8 cm day−1 within the 20–45 cm layer in BS and FR, respectively. Additionally, there was a difference in immobile water content (θim), with the values in FR averaging 21% lower than those in BS. These modifications can be attributed to the formation of fissures and channels, primarily concentrated in the proximity of taproot development, without extending into deep preferential flow pathways. These structural changes were supported by the nondestructive µCT analyses. Upon aggregating the effects observed, solute movement to groundwater was not affected by FR compared to BS conditions. Core Ideas: Taproot served as solute scavenger, offsetting the risk of leaching at −60 cm, below its fleshy portion.Taproot‐induced soil hydraulic changes were mainly observed in the 0–45 cm layer.Forage radish caused an increase in the macroporosity where the taproot mainly developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a growing world population scenario, greater demand for food and in turn agricultural input is expected in the coming decades. The development of innovative sustainable amendments and fertilizers such as hydrogels (HGs) relies on this context. HGs are defined as 3D polymeric networks with the ability to absorb and retain a large amount of water (i.e., swellability). HGs swellability makes them ideal platforms for water- and nutrient-controlled release. The literature reflects a notable diversity in HGs composition, properties, and impacts on agroecosystems, resulting in the dissemination of information across multiple publications. Within this context, the primary aim of this scientific review is to systematically compile, critically evaluate, and synthesize the latest findings and relevant literature pertaining to the application of HGs in agroecosystems. We found that this class of materials was consistently found on soil bulk density, crop available water, soil electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity and main cereal or legume crops performances particularly under moderate water deficit conditions, suggesting their effectiveness for arid and semi- arid areas. Encouraging results were also found on pesticide, agrochemicals, and microorganisms delivering. Thus, the delivery of agronomic inputs with loaded-HG may play a key role in forthcoming agriculture that would minimize the agronomic impact on the environment. Nevertheless, some critical issues still remain open, concerning: (i) the decreased of HG effectiveness following wetting and drying cycles, (ii) the impact of Na+ contained in HG on crop cells, (iii) the HG effect on soil saturated hydraulic conductivity and pH, and (iv) HG biodegradability and their fate into the environment. In conclusion, HGs seem a promising technology to reach/maintain food security and soil health, but future research should address the development of well-defined protocols for producing biowaste-derived HG that will ensure their biodegradability and non-toxicity and will disclose new insights into a circular economy approach agronomy. One of the biggest challenges would be the synthesis of “smart” HG able to respond to environmental stimuli triggering molecule(s) release in soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils is nowadays receiving growing attention also due to the COP21 initiative of "4 per 1000". In this study, the effect of five decades of different residue management (residue removal, residue incorporation, and residue incorporation + poultry manure) was investigated on SOC stock and related to the 4 per 1000 and C saturation concepts. Preliminary results showed that higher 0–60 cm SOC stock was found after 54 years of the experiment when residues were incorporated into the soil compared to residue removal (75.0 vs 69.0 t ha−1) while poultry manure had a negligible effect. Comparing the 0–30 cm SOC stock with pre-existent data series, a general decreasing trend was observed from the start of the experiment in 1966 up to 1986, being greater in residual removal (−8.6 t ha−1) than residual incorporation (−4.8 t ha−1, irrespective of poultry manure addition). In 2020, the difference between the above-mentioned systems was 4.1 t ha−1 corresponding to a 2.2 ‰ which is lower than what was suggested by the 4 per 1000 initiative. This SOC stock attributed to residue retention arose in response to 141 t C ha−1 residue resulting in a 0.1 % yearly conversion rate that is sensibly lower than what is generally reported in the literature. Therefore, an alternative use (e.g., bioenergy production) of at least part of crop residues is conceivable in temperate climate for a more efficient C cycle. The studied soil was demonstrated also to be far from C saturation, being in the 30−47 % degree of saturation range. Therefore, specific studies on how both organic and inorganic (i.e., carbonates) C fractions related to different soil aggregates and aggregate mineralization are namely requested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inversion tillage is a commonly applied soil cultivation practice in Europe, which often has been blamed for deteriorating topsoil stability and organic carbon (OC) content. In this study, the potential to reverse these negative effects in the topsoil by alternative agricultural management practices are evaluated in seven long-term experiments (running from 8 to 54 years the moment of sampling) in five European countries (Belgium, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy and UK). Topsoil samples (0–15 cm) were collected and analysed to evaluate the effects of conservation tillage (reduced and no tillage) and increased organic inputs of different origin (farmyard manure, compost, crop residues) combined with inversion tillage on topsoil stability, soil aggregates and, within these, OC distribution using wet sieving after slaking. Effects from the treatments on the two main components of organic matter, i.e. particulate (POM) and mineral associated (MAOM), were also evaluated using dispersion and size fractionation. Reduced and no-tillage practices, as well as the additions of manure or compost, increased the aggregates mean weight diameter (MWD) (up to 49 % at the Belgian study site) and topsoil OC (up to 51 % at the Belgian study site), as well as the OC corresponding to the different aggregate size fractions. The incorporation of crop residues had a positive impact on the MWD but a less profound effect both on total OC and on OC associated with the different aggregates. A negative relationship between the mass and the OC content of the microaggregates (53–250 µ m) was identified in all experiments. There was no effect on the mass of the macroaggregates and the occluded microaggregates (mM) within these macroaggregates, while the corresponding OC contents increased with less tillage and more organic inputs. Inversion tillage led to less POM within the mM, whereas the different organic inputs did not affect it. In all experiments where the total POM increased, the total soil organic carbon (SOC) was also affected positively. We concluded that the negative effects of inversion tillage on topsoil can be mitigated by reducing the tillage intensity or adding organic materials, optimally combined with non-inversion tillage methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation agriculture (CA) relies on the following three key practices to improve agricultural sustainability: crop rotation, reduced tillage, and cover crop usage. Despite known soil physical benefits (reduced soil compaction and strength, enhanced soil porosity, and permeability), inconsistent reports on short-term CA results have limited its adoption in the European agroecosystems. To elucidate the short-term effects, a 3-year field experiment was undertaken in the low-lying Venetian plain (northern Italy). Bulk density (BD), penetration resistance (PR), soil hydraulic saturated conductivity, and sorptivity were used to evaluate soil quality obtained by combining three tillage intensities (conventional tillage – CT; minimum tillage – MT; no tillage – NT) with three winter soil coverings (bare soil – BS; tillage radish cover crop – TR; winter wheat cover crop – WW). Among the tillage methods, CT, on average, reduced BD by 4 % (from 1.48 to 1.42 g cm -3) and PR by 3.1 % (from 1.69 to 1.64 MPa) in the 0–30 cm tilled layer. Across the soil profile, reduced tillage coupled with WW improved soil physical properties even below the tilled layer, as evidenced by root-growth-limiting condition reductions (-11 % in BD values, with BD >1.55 g cm -3 , and -7 % in PR values, with PR >2.5 MPa). Soil hydraulic measurements confirmed this positive behaviour; NT combined with either BS or WW produced a soil saturated conductivity of 2.12×10-4 m s -1 (4 times that of all other treatments). Likewise, sorptivity increased in NT combined with BS vs. other treatments (3.64×10-4 m s -1 vs. an all-treatment average of 7.98×10-5 m s -1). Our results suggest that, despite the increase in BD and PR due to reduced tillage, the strategy improved soil functioning and particularly soil hydraulic conductivity. In the short term, the WW cover crop moderately increased physical soil parameters, whereas TR had negligible effects. This study demonstrates that, to quantify CA, several soil physical parameters should be monitored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in agricultural soils is currently of special interest because it can help mitigate global warming through atmospheric carbon (C) sequestration. Recommended management practices, such as conservation agriculture (CA) and conventional tillage with cover crops (CC), could have significant implications for C sequestration potential. A field experiment was carried out in northeast Italy to compare the implementation of CA and CC with conventional agriculture (CV). The experiment began in 2010 on three farms to evaluate SOC stock variation over a 6‐year period. Two extensive soil sampling operations were conducted in 2011 and 2017 in 240 locations, for a total of 1,440 analysed soil samples, considering the SOC stratification within a 0–50‐cm profile. The results suggested that CA changed the SOC distribution rather than the total amount of SOC. Compared to CV, after the introduction of CA, a general increase in SOC (0.25 Mg C ha−1 y−1) was observed in the 0–30‐cm layer, whereas no stock variation was observed in the 0–50‐cm layer. In contrast, compared to CV, the use of CC decreased the SOC stocks by 0.74 Mg C ha−1 y−1 in the 0–50‐cm layer. Over a 6‐year period, no benefit in SOC sequestration was observed with CA and CC. However, we hypothesize that these findings could still be affected by transitory dynamics, highlighting the low soil reactivity to soil‐improving agricultural systems. A longer study period would be required to better understand the potential benefits of CA and CC on SOC sequestration. Highlights: We hypothesized that conservation practices increase SOC after a 6‐year adoptionNo‐tillage enhanced SOC stratification in conservation agricultureC addition with cover crops induced SOC stock reductions due to a priming effectAn SOC increase was not observed after 6 years of conservation practices [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation agriculture (CA) is an agronomic system, including no‐tillage, cover crops and residue retention on the soil surface, which represents more sustainable management compared to conventional ploughing systems (CV). Conservation agriculture is widespread in some parts of the world (i.e. South America and the USA), whereas it is still developing in others (i.e. Europe). One of the main reasons for the slow European uptake of CA is low yield because of the worsening of soil physical quality, in particular increased compaction and reduced hydraulic permeability. The effects of CA on soil physical dynamics are poorly documented, particularly during the transition phase between CV and CA and for fine‐textured soils. Therefore, in this study, the effects of CA on soil volumetric water content, bulk density, penetration resistance and electrical resistivity are presented over a 3‐year monitoring period. The experiment was established in 2010 on four farms in the Veneto region (northeastern Italy) with silty soils, where CA practice was compared with CV. The dynamics of soil physical properties were monitored from 2014 to 2016 following a 3‐year crop rotation cycle. Every year, bulk density analysis, a penetration resistance test and three‐dimensional electrical resistivity tomography were performed. The results showed that soil physical properties clustered depending on soil texture: in silty loam soils any specific improvements were highlighted after 6 years of CA, whereas in loamy soils soil compaction was observed in both CA and CV. Indeed, CA resulted in soil compaction below a depth of 10 cm (+107% of degree of compaction), whereas CV resulted in the formation of a plough pan in the 35–55‐cm layer (+111% of degree of compaction). The low soil organic carbon and low clay contents made loamy soil particularly prone to compaction, highlighting the influence of fine texture on soil structure evolution during the transition phase. Highlights: Greater organic matter content and biological activity might offset compaction in CA during transition phaseCA did not suffer from soil compaction on silty soil while ERT detected a plough pan in loamy soil under CVGeophysics integrated with direct assessment methods is a useful tool for studying soil structure evolutionNo specific benefits or drawbacks were highlighted after 6 years of CA adoption with respect to CV in silty soil [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "4 per 1,000" initiative calls for land management practices that increase soil organic C (SOC). Despite an imperative for accurate SOC measurement, several methodological issues may complicate the verification of C sequestration. The aim of this work is to evaluate the potential advantages of using apparent electrical conductivity (ECa)-directed sampling to deep (0-90 cm) SOC stock assessment. We compared simple random sampling (SRS) and stratified random sampling (StSRS), with either a fixed or optimized number of samples, in fields managed under conservation agriculture and conventional tillage. The stratification in StSRS was built from ECa maps that showed two different soil conditions--the presence or absence (high-salinity conditions) of a strong correlation between ECa and soil properties. Treatment and sampling design effects on SOC estimates were tested through a mixed-model approach. Sampling efficiency was calculated by classical and bootstrapmethods. Results suggested that when ECa has a strong relationshipwith soil properties, StSRSwasmore efficient than SRS, especially when using an optimal number of samples per stratum. Stratification was based on ECa maps of the no-till site, which allowed a smaller minimum sample size. When stratification failed due to the effect of salinity on ECa, StSRS efficiencywas similar to SRS. These results suggest that ECa-directed sampling, regardless of knowing the relationships between ECa and soil properties, is a win-win solution to advance soil characterization and SOC stock estimation in agricultural fields of the low Venetian plain. However, further research should investigate EC a-directed sampling where strong patterns not related to SOC could lead to inappropriate stratification or suboptimal sample allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic digestion has been recently proposed as a more sustainable energy supply chain able to strengthen the existing security of supply provisions. Anaerobic digestate (AD) is the by-product of the anaerobic digestion process and presents organic fertilizer characteristics, but its agronomic usage has been hindered by both agronomic and environmental concerns. In this study, the impact of agricultural liquid (LD) and solid (SD) AD and beef manure (Man) was evaluated on some agro-environmental characteristics. First, the AD fractions functional groups were characterized by FT-IR, and then LD and SD performances were evaluated on soil organic carbon (SOC) stock and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and compared to beef manure (Man). The fertilizer impact was also considered with the presence or absence of a shallow water table. Results showed that SD increased of ca. 3 t ha−1 the SOC stock in the 0–20 cm soil profile with respect to LD, while it was comparable to Man despite the lower C input (6.7 vs. 8.7 t C ha−1), due to the presence of more stable compounds (e.g., lignin). The CO2 fluxes were affected by both fertilizer type and water table level. In the absence of a water table, the CO2 emissions (5.5 g CO2 m2 d−1) were driven by carbon content and quality in the fertilizer, while the presence of a shallower water table hindered mineralization of stable SOC and, in turn, reduced emissions (4.4 g CO2 m2 d−1). AD can be considered a beneficial solution to both maintain soil fertility and, at the same time, give new insight into a circular economy model, although further investigation on GHG emissions is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil compaction (SC) is a major threat for agriculture in Europe that affects many ecosystem functions, such as water and air circulation in soils, root growth, and crop production. Our objective was to present the results from five short-term (<5 years) case studies located along the north–south and east–west gradients and conducted within the SoilCare project using soil-improving cropping systems (SICSs) for mitigating topsoil and subsoil SC. Two study sites (SSs) focused on natural subsoil (˃25 cm) compaction using subsoiling tillage treatments to depths of 35 cm (Sweden) and 60 cm (Romania). The other SSs addressed both topsoil and subsoil SC (˃25 cm, Norway and United Kingdom; ˃30 cm, Italy) using deep-rooted bio-drilling crops and different tillage types or a combination of both. Each SS evaluated the effectiveness of the SICSs by measuring the soil physical properties, and we calculated SC indices. The SICSs showed promising results—for example, alfalfa in Norway showed good potential for alleviating SC (the subsoil density decreased from 1.69 to 1.45 g cm−1) and subsoiling at the Swedish SS improved root penetration into the subsoil by about 10 cm—but the effects of SICSs on yields were generally small. These case studies also reflected difficulties in implementing SICSs, some of which are under development, and we discuss methodological issues for measuring their effectiveness. There is a need for refining these SICSs and for evaluating their longer-term effect under a wider range of pedoclimatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of the effects of conservation agriculture during the transition from conventional tillage to no-tillage requires numerous indicators to be considered. For this purpose, we monitored changes in a multi-parameter dataset during a three-year experiment that combined three tillage intensities (conventional tillage—CT; minimum tillage—MT; and no tillage—NT) with three soil covering managements (tillage radish cover crop, winter wheat cover crop and bare soil). Using a multivariate analysis, we developed a Relative Sustainability Index (RSI) based on 11 physical (e.g., bulk density and penetration resistance), chemical (e.g., soil organic carbon and pH) and biological soil properties (e.g., earthworm density) to evaluate cropping systems sustainability. The RSI was most affected by tillage intensity showing higher RSI values (i.e., better performances) in reduced tillage systems. Specifically, the RSI under NT was 42% greater than that of CT and 13% greater than that of MT. Soil covering had little impact on the RSI. Among the tested parameters, the RSI was increased most by saturated hydraulic conductivity (+193%) and earthworm density (+339%) across CT and NT treatments. Our results suggest that conservation agriculture and, particularly, reduced tillage systems, have the potential to increase farm environmental and agronomic sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil water retention (SWR) is an important soil property related to soil structure, texture, and organic matter (SOM), among other properties. Agricultural management practices affect some of these properties in an interdependent way. In this study, the impact of management-induced changes of soil organic carbon (SOC) on SWR is evaluated in five long-term experiments in Europe (running from 8 up to 54 years when samples were taken). Topsoil samples (0–15 cm) were collected and analysed to evaluate the effects of three different management categories, i.e., soil tillage, the addition of exogenous organic materials, the incorporation of crop residues affecting SOC and water content under a range of matric potentials. Changes in the total SOC up to 10 g C kg−1 soil (1%) observed for the different management practices, do not cause statistically significant differences in the SWR characteristics as expected. The direct impact of the SOC on SWR is consistent but negligible, whereas the indirect impact of SOC in the higher matric potentials, which are mainly affected by soil structure and aggregate composition, prevails. The different water content responses under the various matric potentials to SOC changes for each management group implies that one conservation measure alone has a limited effect on SWR and only a combination of several practices that lead to better soil structure, such as reduced soil disturbances combined with increased SOM inputs can lead to better water holding capacity of the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agri-environmental indicators such as nutrient balance may play a key role in soil and water quality monitoring, although short-term experiments might be unable to capture the sustainability of cropping systems. Therefore, the objectives of this study are: (i) to evaluate the reliability of long-term experimental N and P balance estimates to predict real field (RF) (i.e., short-term transitory) conditions; and (ii) to compare the sustainability of short- and long-term experiments. The LTE-based predictions showed that crops are generally over-fertilised in RF conditions, particularly maize. Nutrient balance predictions based on the LTE data tended to be more optimistic than those observed under RF conditions, which are often characterised by lower outputs; in particular, 13, 44, and 47% lower yields were observed for winter wheat, maize, and soybean, respectively, under organic management. The graphical evaluation of N and P use efficiency demonstrated the benefit of adopting crop rotation practices and the risk of nutrient loss when liquid organic fertiliser was applied on a long-term basis. In conclusion, LTE predictions may depend upon specific RF conditions, representing potential N and P use efficiencies that, in RF, may be reduced by crop yield-limiting factors and the specific implemented crop sequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digestate is an anaerobic digestion by-product rich in inorganic-nitrogen (N) that can be used as an organic fertilizer. Digestate agronomic efficiency and its impact on the environment have not yet been studied in detail, therefore this study tries to fill this gap. The agro-environmental sustainability of digestate fractions was evaluated in a holistic way by comparing the best management practices available in the Veneto Region agroecosystem. A farm experiment involving mineral fertilizer and both liquid and solid digestate fractions was established involving silage winter wheat and silage maize as main crops. Agro-environmental sustainability was investigated coupling crop performance analysis (e.g., yield, N uptake and N use efficiency (NUE)) with a novel proposed agro-environmental sustainability index (AESI) (i.e., product of the dry yield and NUE). The results showed that the liquid digestate fraction gave agronomic performances comparable to mineral fertilizers and a satisfying AESI while solid digestate showed lower performances. In conclusion, liquid digestate fractions might be an effective substitute for mineral fertilizers in the Veneto region agroecosystem reaching encouraging levels of agro-environmental sustainability. On the contrary, longer-term experiments are requested to evaluate solid digestate fraction sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constructed wetlands (CWs) represent a green technology for digestate liquid fraction (DLF) treatment. However, previous research has warned about their performance when treating wastewater with high suspended solid and organic loads. In addition, the high NH4-N concentration typical of this wastewater can compromise vegetation establishment and activity. In view of this, a digestate pretreatment is needed. This study aimed to test the performance of filters filled with recovery materials, such as brick and refractory material, for DLF pretreatment. The effect on DLF physical (electrical conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature) and chemical (total nitrogen, ammonia–nitrogen, nitrate–nitrogen, total phosphorus, soluble phosphorus, and chemical oxygen demand) characteristics was monitored during eight weekly cycles. The effect of filtration on total nitrogen and ammonia–nitrogen removal began after about one month of loading, suggesting that an activation period is necessary for bacteria. For effective N removal, the presence of multiple digestate recirculations per day through the filters appears mandatory to guarantee the alternation of nitrification and denitrification conditions. For P removal, filling material particle size appeared to be more important than its composition. Unclear performances were observed considering chemical oxygen demand. Further studies on filling media and microbial community interactions, and the long-term efficiency of filters, are desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A transition from conventional to more sustainable soil management measures (SMMs) is required to reverse the current soil organic matter (SOM) losses in the agroecosystems. Despite the innovations and technologies that are available to prevent SOM decline, top–down knowledge transfer schemes that incentivize a certain measure are often ineffective. Here, we discuss relevant outcomes from a participatory approach where researchers, farmers, practitioners and government officials have discussed opportunities and barriers around SMM application to prevent SOM decline. Within a series of workshops, stakeholders identified, scored, and selected SMMs to field-tests and evaluated the benefits and drawbacks from their application. Results showed that the stakeholders recognized the need for innovations, although they valued the most promising SMM as already available continuous soil cover and conservation agriculture. In contrast, more innovative SMMs, such as biochar use and the variable rate application of organic amendments through precision farming, were the least valued, suggesting that people's resistance to new technologies is often governed by the socio-cultural perception of them that goes beyond the economic and technological aspects. The valuation of benefits and drawbacks by stakeholders on trialed measures emphasized that stakeholders' perspective about soil management is a combination of economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects, thus corroborating the need for transdisciplinary bottom–up approaches to prevent SOM depletion and increase soil rehabilitation and SOM content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) has been successfully applied to estimate evapotranspiration (ET) and yield at different spatial scales. However, ET and yield patterns have never been investigated under highly heterogeneous conditions. We applied SEBAL in a salt-affected and water-stressed maize field located at the margin of the Venice Lagoon, Italy, using Landsat images. SEBAL results were compared with estimates of evapotranspiration by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) method (ETc) and three-dimensional soil-plant simulations. The biomass production routine in SEBAL was then tested using spatially distributed crop yield measurements and the outcomes of a soil-plant numerical model. The results show good agreement between SEBAL evapotranspiration and ETc. Instantaneous ET simulated by SEBAL is also consistent with the soil-plant model results (R2 = 0.7047 for 2011 and R2 = 0.6689 for 2012). Conversely, yield predictions (6.4 t/ha in 2011 and 3.47 t/ha in 2012) are in good agreement with observations (8.64 t/ha and 3.86 t/ha, respectively) only in 2012 and the comparison with soil-plant simulations (8.69 t/ha and 5.49 t/ha) is poor. In general, SEBAL underestimates land productivity in contrast to the soil-plant model that overestimates yield in dry years. SEBAL provides accurate predictions under stress conditions due to the fact that it does not require knowledge of the soil/root characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]