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Lakes experience shifts in the timing of physical and biogeochemical events as a result of climate warming, and relative changes in the timing of events may have important ecological consequences. Spring, in particular, is a period in which many key processes that regulate the ecology and biogeochemistry of lakes occur and also a time that may experience significant changes under the influence of global warming. In this study, we used a coupled catchment–lake model forced by future climate projections to evaluate changes in the timing of spring discharge, ice-off, the spring phytoplankton peak, and the onset of stratification in a temperate mesotrophic lake. Although the model explained only part of the variation in these events, the overall patterns were simulated with little bias. All four events showed a clear trend towards earlier occurrence under climate warming, with ice cover tending to disappear at the end of the century in the most extreme climate scenario. Moreover, relative shifts in the timing of these springtime events also occurred, with the onset of stratification tending to advance more slowly than the other events and the spring phytoplankton peak and ice-off advancing faster in the most extreme climate scenario. The outcomes of this study stress the impact of climate change on the phenology of events in lakes and especially the relative shifts in timing during spring. This can have profound effects on food web dynamics as well as other regulatory processes and influence the lake for the remainder of the growing season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lakes are significant emitters of methane to the atmosphere, and thus are important components of the global methane budget. Methane is typically produced in lake sediments, with the rate of methane production being strongly temperature dependent. Local and regional studies highlight the risk of increasing methane production under future climate change, but a global estimate is not currently available. Here, we project changes in global lake bottom temperatures and sediment methane production rates from 1901 to 2099. By the end of the 21st century, lake bottom temperatures are projected to increase globally, by an average of 0.86–2.60°C under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6–8.5, with greater warming projected at lower latitudes. This future warming of bottom waters will likely result in an increase in methane production rates of 13%–40% by the end of the century, with many low‐latitude lakes experiencing an increase of up to 17 times the historical (1970–1999) global average under RCP 8.5. The projected increase in methane production will likely lead to higher emissions from lakes, although the exact magnitude of the emission increase requires more detailed regional studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme wind events affect lake phytoplankton by deepening the mixed layer and increasing internal nutrient loading. Both increases and decreases in phytoplankton concentration after strong wind events have been observed, but the precise mechanisms driving these responses remain poorly understood or quantified. We coupled a one‐dimensional physical model to a biogeochemical model to investigate the factors regulating short‐term phytoplankton responses to summer wind events, now and under expected warmer future conditions. We simulated physical, chemical, and biological dynamics in Lake Erken, Sweden, and found that strong wind could increase or decrease the phytoplankton concentration in the euphotic zone 1 week after the event, depending on antecedent lake physical and chemical conditions. Wind had little effect on phytoplankton concentration if the mixed layer was deep prior to wind exposure. Higher incoming shortwave radiation and hypolimnetic nutrient concentration boosted phytoplankton concentration, whereas higher surface water temperatures decreased concentrations after wind events. Medium‐intensity wind events resulted in more phytoplankton than high‐intensity wind. Simulations under a future climate scenario did not show marked differences in the way wind events affect phytoplankton concentration. These findings help to better understand how wind impacts vary as a function of local environmental conditions and how climate warming and changing extreme weather dynamics will affect lake ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lakes are traditionally classified based on their thermal regime and trophic status. While this classification adequately captures many lakes, it is not sufficient to understand seasonally ice‐covered lakes, the most common lake type on Earth. We describe the inverse thermal stratification in 19 highly varying lakes and derive a model that predicts the temperature profile as a function of wind stress, area, and depth. The results suggest an additional subdivision of seasonally ice‐covered lakes to differentiate underice stratification. When ice forms in smaller and deeper lakes, inverse stratification will form with a thin buoyant layer of cold water (near 0°C) below the ice, which remains above a deeper 4°C layer. In contrast, the entire water column can cool to ∼0°C in larger and shallower lakes. We suggest these alternative conditions for dimictic lakes be termed "cryostratified" and "cryomictic." Plain Language Summary: Most mid and high latitude lakes are seasonally ice‐covered and have only been classified based on the thermal structure and trophic status during the open‐water season in summer. However, limited temperatures observations in these ice‐covered lakes suggest that there is a wide range of thermal structures over winter. We developed an analytical model to predict the average water temperature at the time of ice formation based on the strength of the surface winds, the area of the lake, and the maximum depth of the lake. Using both the analytical model and water temperature data from 19 different lakes in North America, Europe, and Asia, we found that the time of ice formation in lakes that are large or experience strong winds were later compared to lakes that are small or experience weak winds. The larger and windier lakes are also colder (0°C∼2°C) than smaller and calmer lakes (2°C∼4°C) at the time of ice formation. This suggests that these seasonally ice‐covered lakes can be subdivided into two additional classes during winter. The analytical model and the new categorization have important consequences for understanding fish habitat under the ice and the potential effects of climate change on these seasonally ice‐covered lakes. Key Points: Standard classifications of dimictic lakes do not consider how variable the initial thermal stratification can be under winter lake iceLakes that are shallow or windy can cool to near 0°C–1°C before ice forms and are weakly stratified, which we term "cryomictic"Deeper lakes or those with calmer winds, result in ice forming just above deeper waters of 3°C–4°C, which we term "cryostratified" [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake ecosystems, and the organisms that live within them, are vulnerable to temperature change1–5, including the increased occurrence of thermal extremes6. However, very little is known about lake heatwaves—periods of extreme warm lake surface water temperature—and how they may change under global warming. Here we use satellite observations and a numerical model to investigate changes in lake heatwaves for hundreds of lakes worldwide from 1901 to 2099. We show that lake heatwaves will become hotter and longer by the end of the twenty-first century. For the high-greenhouse-gas-emission scenario (Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5), the average intensity of lake heatwaves, defined relative to the historical period (1970 to 1999), will increase from 3.7 ± 0.1 to 5.4 ± 0.8 degrees Celsius and their average duration will increase dramatically from 7.7 ± 0.4 to 95.5 ± 35.3 days. In the low-greenhouse-gas-emission RCP 2.6 scenario, heatwave intensity and duration will increase to 4.0 ± 0.2 degrees Celsius and 27.0 ± 7.6 days, respectively. Surface heatwaves are longer-lasting but less intense in deeper lakes (up to 60 metres deep) than in shallower lakes during both historic and future periods. As lakes warm during the twenty-first century7,8, their heatwaves will begin to extend across multiple seasons, with some lakes reaching a permanent heatwave state. Lake heatwaves are likely to exacerbate the adverse effects of long-term warming in lakes and exert widespread influence on their physical structure and chemical properties. Lake heatwaves could alter species composition by pushing aquatic species and ecosystems to the limits of their resilience. This in turn could threaten lake biodiversity9 and the key ecological and economic benefits that lakes provide to society.Modelling and remote sensing show that by the end of the twenty-first century, lake heatwaves will be several degrees Celsius warmer and some will be months longer, with potentially major adverse consequences for lake ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historical lake water temperature records are a valuable source of information to assess the influence of climate change on lake thermal structure. However, in most cases such records span a short period of time and/or are incomplete, providing a less credible assessment of change. In this study, the hydrodynamic GOTM (General Ocean Turbulence Model, a hydrodynamic model configured in lake mode) was used to reconstruct daily profiles of water temperature in Lake Erken (Sweden) over the period 1961–2017 using seven climatic parameters as forcing data: wind speed (WS), air temperature (Air T), atmospheric pressure (Air P), relative humidity (RH), cloud cover (CC), precipitation (DP), and shortwave radiation (SWR). The model was calibrated against observed water temperature data collected during the study interval, and the calibrated model revealed a good match between modelled and observed temperature (RMSE =1.089 ∘ C). From the long-term simulations of water temperature, this study focused on detecting possible trends in water temperature over the entire study interval 1961–2017 and in the sub-intervals 1961–1988 and 1989–2017, since an abrupt change in air temperature was detected in 1988. The analysis of the simulated temperature showed that epilimnetic temperature increased on average by 0.444 and 0.792 ∘ C per decade in spring and autumn in the sub-interval 1989–2017. Summer epilimnetic temperature increased by 0.351 ∘ C per decade over the entire interval 1961–2017. Hypolimnetic temperature increased significantly in spring over the entire interval 1961–2017, by 0.148 and by 0.816 ∘ C per decade in autumn in the sub-interval 1989–2016. Whole-lake temperature showed a significant increasing trend in the sub-interval 1989–2017 during spring (0.404 ∘ C per decade) and autumn (0.789 ∘ C per decade, interval 1989–2016), while a significant trend was detected in summer over the entire study interval 1961–2017 (0.239 ∘ C per decade). Moreover, this study showed that changes in the phenology of thermal stratification have occurred over the 57-year period of study. Since 1961, the stability of stratification (Schmidt stability) has increased by 5.365 J m -2 per decade. The duration of thermal stratification has increased by 7.297 d per decade, corresponding to an earlier onset of stratification of ∼16 d and to a delay of stratification termination of ∼26 d. The average thermocline depth during stratification became shallower by ∼1.345 m, and surface-bottom temperature difference increased over time by 0.249 ∘ C per decade. The creation of a daily time step water temperature dataset not only provided evidence of changes in Erken thermal structure over the last decades, but is also a valuable resource of information that can help in future research on the ecology of Lake Erken. The use of readily available meteorological data to reconstruct Lake Erken's past water temperature is shown to be a useful method to evaluate long-term changes in lake thermal structure, and it is a method that can be extended to other lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper, as a part of Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP2b), assesses the impacts of different levels of global warming on the thermal structure of Lake Erken (Sweden). The GOTM one-dimensional hydrodynamic model was used to simulate water temperature when using ISIMIP2b bias-corrected climate model projections as input. These projections have a daily time step, while lake model simulations are often forced at hourly or shorter time steps. Therefore, it was necessary to first test the ability of GOTM to simulate Lake Erken water temperature using daily vs hourly meteorological forcing data. In order to do this three data sets were used to force the model: (1) hourly measured data; (2) daily average data derived from the first data set and; (3) synthetic hourly data created from the daily data set using Generalized Regression Artificial Neural Network methods. This last data set is developed using a method that could also be applied to the daily time step ISIMIP scenarios to obtain hourly model input if needed. The lake model was shown to accurately simulate Lake Erken water temperature when forced with either daily or synthetic hourly data. Long-term simulations forced with daily or synthetic hourly meteorological data suggest that by 2099 the lake will undergo clear changes in thermal structure, for RCP 2.6 surface water temperature was projected to increase from 0.87 to 1.48 °C and from 0.69 to 1.20 °C when the lake model was forced at daily and hourly resolutions respectively, and for RCP 6.0 these increases were projected to range from 1.58 to 3.58 °C and from 1.19 to 2.65 °C when the lake model was also forced at daily and hourly resolutions. Changes in lake stability were projected to increase significantly and the stratification duration was projected to be longer by 9 to 16 days and from 7 to 13 days under RCP 2.6 scenario and from 20 to 33 days and from 17 to 27 under RCP 6.0 scenario for daily and hourly resolutions. Model trends were very similar when using either the daily or synthetic hourly forcing, suggesting that the original climate model projections at a daily time step can be sufficient for the purpose of simulating water temperature in the lake sector in ISIMIP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thermal structure of lakes is strictly related to climate and to the variability of thermal and mixing dynamics. In this study, a physical hydrodynamic model (GOTM) was used to reconstruct daily time-step water temperature of Lake Erken (Sweden) over the period 1961-2017, using seven climatic parameters as forcing data: wind speed (WS), air temperature (Air T), atmospheric pressure (Air P), relative humidity (RH), cloud cover (CC), precipitation (DP) and shortwave radiation (SWR). The model was calibrated against real water temperature data collected during the study interval, and the calibrated model revealed a good match between modelled and observed temperature (RMSE = 1.112 °C). From the long-term simulations of water temperature, this study focused on detecting possible trends in water temperature over the entire study interval 1961-2017 and in the sub-intervals 1961-1987 and 1988-2017. The analysis of the simulated temperature showed that epilimnetic temperature has increased on average by +0.43 °C/decade and +0.809 °C/decade in spring and autumn in the sub-interval 1988-2017. Summer epilimnetic temperature has increased by +0.348 °C/decade over the entire interval 1961-2017. Hypolimnetic temperature has increased significantly in the sub-interval 1988-2016 by +0.827 °C/decade in autumn. Whole-lake temperature showed a significant increasing trend in the sub-interval 1988-2017 during spring (+0.378 °C/decade) and in autumn (+0.809 °C/decade). Moreover, this study showed that changes in the phenology of thermal stratification, have occurred over the 57-years period of study. Since 1961 the stability of stratification (Schmidt Stability) has increased by 5.535 J m-2/decade. The duration of thermal stratification has increased by 7.083 days/decade, correspondent with an earlier onset of stratification of ~ 16 days and to a delay of stratification termination of ~ 26 days. The average thermocline depth during stratification became shallower by ~ 1.242 m, and surface-bottom temperature difference increased over time by +0.249 °C/decade. The creation of daily-time step water temperature dataset not only provided evidence of changes in Erken thermal structure over the last decades, but it is also a valuable resource of information that can help in future research on the ecology of Lake Erken. The use of readily available meteorological data to reconstruct Lake Erken's past water temperature is shown to be a useful method to evaluate long-term changes in lake thermal structure, and it is a method that can be extended to other lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Damming alters carbon processing along river continua. Estimating carbon transport along rivers intersected by multiple dams requires an understanding of the effects of cascading impoundments on the riverine metabolism. We analyzed patterns of riverine metabolism and phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll a; Chla) along a 74.4-km river reach intersected by six low-head navigation dams. Calculating gross primary production (GPP) from continuous measurements of dissolved oxygen concentration, we found a maximum increase in the mean GPP by a factor of 3.5 (absolute difference of 0.45 g C m−3 d−1) along the first 26.5 km of the study reach, while Chla increased over the entire reach by a factor of 2.9 (8.7 µg l−1). In the intermittently stratified section of the deepest impoundment the mean GPP between the 1 and 4 m water layer differed by a factor of 1.4 (0.31 g C m−3 d−1). Due to the strong increase in GPP, the river featured a wide range of conditions characteristic of low- to medium-production rivers. We suggest that cascading impoundments have the potential to stimulate riverine GPP, and conclude that phytoplankton CO2 uptake is an important carbon flux in the river Saar, where a considerable amount of organic matter is of autochthonous origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citizen science projects have a long history in ecological studies. The research usefulness of such projects is dependent on applying simple and standardized methods. Here, we conducted a citizen science project that involved more than 3500 Swedish high school students to examine the temperature difference between surface water and the overlying air (Tw-Ta) as a proxy for sensible heat flux (QH). If QH is directed upward, corresponding to positive Tw-Ta, it can enhance CO2 and CH4 emissions from inland waters, thereby contributing to increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The students found mostly negative Tw-Ta across small ponds, lakes, streams/rivers and the sea shore (i.e. downward QH), with Tw-Ta becoming increasingly negative with increasing Ta. Further examination of Tw-Ta using high-frequency temperature data from inland waters across the globe confirmed that Tw-Ta is linearly related to Ta. Using the longest available high-frequency temperature time series from Lake Erken, Sweden, we found a rapid increase in the occasions of negative Tw-Ta with increasing annual mean Ta since 1989. From these results, we can expect that ongoing and projected global warming will result in increasingly negative Tw-Ta, thereby reducing CO2 and CH4 transfer velocities from inland waters into the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]