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The processes responsible for methane (CH4) emissions from boreal wetlands are complex; hence, their model representation is complicated by a large number of parameters and parameter uncertainties. The arctic-enabled dynamic global vegetation model LPJ-GUESS (Lund–Potsdam–Jena General Ecosystem Simulator) is one such model that allows quantification and understanding of the natural wetland CH4 fluxes at various scales, ranging from local to regional and global, but with several uncertainties. The model contains detailed descriptions of the CH4 production, oxidation, and transport controlled by several process parameters. Complexities in the underlying environmental processes, warming-driven alternative paths of meteorological phenomena, and changes in hydrological and vegetation conditions highlight the need for a calibrated and optimised version of LPJ-GUESS. In this study, we formulated the parameter calibration as a Bayesian problem, using knowledge of reasonable parameters values as priors. We then used an adaptive Metropolis–Hastings (MH)-based Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to improve predictions of CH4 emission by LPJ-GUESS and to quantify uncertainties. Application of this method on uncertain parameters allows for a greater search of their posterior distribution, leading to a more complete characterisation of the posterior distribution with a reduced risk of the sample impoverishment that can occur when using other optimisation methods. For assimilation, the analysis used flux measurement data gathered during the period from 2005 to 2014 from the Siikaneva wetlands in Southern Finland with an estimation of measurement uncertainties. The data are used to constrain the processes behind the CH4 dynamics, and the posterior covariance structures are used to explain how the parameters and the processes are related. To further support the conclusions, the CH4 flux and the other component fluxes associated with the flux are examined. The results demonstrate the robustness of MCMC methods to quantitatively assess the interrelationship between objective function choices, parameter identifiability, and data support. The experiment using real observations from Siikaneva resulted in a reduction in the root-mean-square error (RMSE), from 0.044 to 0.023 gC m -2 d -1 , and a 93.89 % reduction in the cost function value. As a part of this work, knowledge about how CH4 data can constrain the parameters and processes is derived. Although the optimisation is performed based on a single site's flux data from Siikaneva, the algorithm is useful for larger-scale multi-site studies for a more robust calibration of LPJ-GUESS and similar models, and the results can highlight where model improvements are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we use a data assimilation framework based on the Adaptive Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to constrain process parameters in LPJ-GUESS using CH4 eddy covariance flux observations from 14 different natural boreal and temperate wetlands. The objective is to derive a single set of calibrated parameter values. These parameters are then used in the model to validate its CH4 flux output against 5 different types of natural wetlands situated in different locations, assessing their generality for simulating CH4 fluxes from different boreal and temperate wetlands. The results show that the MCMC framework has substantially reduced the cost function (measuring the misfit between simulated and observed CH4 fluxes) and facilitated detailed characterisation of the posterior distribution. A reduction of around 95 % in the cost function and approximately 50 % in RMSE were observed. The validation experiment results indicate that four out of 5 sites successfully reduced RMSE, demonstrating the effectiveness of the framework for estimating CH4 emissions from wetlands not included in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arctic terrestrial greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH 4), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) play an important role in the global GHG budget. However, these GHG fluxes are rarely studied simultaneously, and our understanding of the conditions controlling them across spatial gradients is limited. Here, we explore the magnitudes and drivers of GHG fluxes across fine-scale terrestrial gradients during the peak growing season (July) in sub-Arctic Finland. We measured chamber-derived GHG fluxes and soil temperature, soil moisture, soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks, soil pH, soil carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, soil dissolved organic carbon content, vascular plant biomass, and vegetation type from 101 plots scattered across a heterogeneous tundra landscape (5 km 2). We used these field data together with high-resolution remote sensing data to develop machine learning models for predicting (i.e., upscaling) daytime GHG fluxes across the landscape at 2 m resolution. Our results show that this region was on average a daytime net GHG sink during the growing season. Although our results suggest that this sink was driven by CO 2 uptake, it also revealed small but widespread CH 4 uptake in upland vegetation types, almost surpassing the high wetland CH 4 emissions at the landscape scale. Average N 2 O fluxes were negligible. CO 2 fluxes were controlled primarily by annual average soil temperature and biomass (both increase net sink) and vegetation type, CH 4 fluxes by soil moisture (increases net emissions) and vegetation type, and N 2 O fluxes by soil C/N (lower C/N increases net source). These results demonstrate the potential of high spatial resolution modeling of GHG fluxes in the Arctic. They also reveal the dominant role of CO 2 fluxes across the tundra landscape but suggest that CH 4 uptake in dry upland soils might play a significant role in the regional GHG budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termites play an essential role in decomposing dead plant material in tropical ecosystems and are thus major sources of gaseous C emissions in many environments. In African savannas, fungus-growing termites are among the ecologically most influential termite species. We studied the gas exchange from mounds of two closely related fungus-growing species (Macrotermes subhyalinus and M. michaelseni, respectively) in two habitats representing different vegetation types (grassland, bushland) together with soil fluxes around the mounds. The fluxes from active termite mounds varied from 120 to 2100 mg CO 2 –C m -2 h -1 for carbon dioxide (CO 2) and from 0.06 to 3.7 mg CH 4 –C m -2 h -1 for methane (CH 4) fluxes. Mound CO 2 fluxes varied seasonally with a 64 % decrease and 41 % increase in the fluxes from the dry to wet season at the grassland and bushland sites, respectively. During the wet season, the CO 2 fluxes were significantly correlated with termite mound volume. The diurnal measurements from two M. michaelseni mounds suggest that the gas fluxes peak during the daytime, possibly reflecting changes in mound internal air circulation. Soil fluxes of both CO 2 and CH 4 were enhanced at up to 2 m distance from the mounds compared to the local soil respiration, indicating that, in addition to mound ventilation structures, a small proportion of the metabolic gases produced also leave the nest via surrounding soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ecosystem–atmosphere flux of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) has important impacts on tropospheric oxidative capacity and the formation of secondary organic aerosols, influencing air quality and climate. Here we present within-canopy measurements of a set of dominant BVOCs in a managed spruce- and pine-dominated boreal forest located at the ICOS (Integrated Carbon Observation System) station Norunda in Sweden, collected using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) during 2014–2016 and vertical emission profiles derived from these data. Ozone concentrations were simultaneously measured in conjunction with these PTR-MS measurements. The main BVOCs investigated with the PTR-MS were isoprene, monoterpenes, methanol, acetaldehyde, and acetone. The distribution of BVOC sources and sinks in the forest canopy was explored using Lagrangian dispersion matrix methods, in particular continuous near-field theory. The forest canopy was found to contribute ca. 86 % to the total monoterpene emission in summertime, whereas the below-canopy and canopy emissions were comparable (ca. 42 % and 58 %, respectively) during the fall period. This result indicates that boreal forest litter and other below-canopy emitters are a principal source of total forest monoterpene emissions during the fall months. During night, our results for methanol, acetone, and acetaldehyde seasonally present strong sinks in the forest canopy, especially in the fall, likely due to the nighttime formation of dew on vegetation surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The processes responsible for methane (CH4) emissions from boreal wetlands are complex, and hence their model representation is complicated by a large number of parameters and parameter uncertainties. The arctic-enabled dynamic global vegetation model LPJ-GUESS is one such model that allows quantification and understanding of the natural wetland CH4 fluxes at various scales ranging from local to regional and global, but with several uncertainties. The model contains detailed descriptions of CH4 production, oxidation, and transport controlled by several process parameters. Complexities in the underlying environmental processes, warming-driven alternative paths of meteorological phenomena, and changes in hydrological and vegetation conditions are highlight the need for a calibrated and optimised version of LPJGUESS. In this study we formulated the parameter calibration as a Bayesian problem, using knowledge of reasonable parameters values as priors. We then used an adaptive Metropolis Hastings (MH) based Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to improve predictions of CH4 emission by LPJ-GUESS and to quantify uncertainties. Application of this method on uncertain parameters allows greater search of their posterior distribution, leading to a more complete characterisation of the posterior distribution with reduced risk of sample impoverishment that can occur when using other optimisation methods. For assimilation, the analysis used flux measurement data gathered during the period 2005 to 2014 from the Siikaneva wetlands in southern Finland with an estimation of measurement uncertainties. The data are used to constrain the processes behind the CH4 dynamics, and the posterior covariance structures are used to explain how the parameters and the processes are related. To further support the conclusions, the CH4 flux and the other component fluxes associated with the flux are examined. The results demonstrate the robustness of MCMC methods to quantitatively assess the interrelationship between objective function choices, parameter identifiability, and data support. As a part of this work, knowledge about how the CH4 data can constrain the parameters and processes is derived. Though the optimisation is performed based on a single site's flux data from Siikaneva, the algorithm is useful for larger-scale multi-site studies for more robust calibration of LPJ-GUESS and similar models, and the results can highlight where model improvements are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arctic‐boreal landscapes are experiencing profound warming, along with changes in ecosystem moisture status and disturbance from fire. This region is of global importance in terms of carbon feedbacks to climate, yet the sign (sink or source) and magnitude of the Arctic‐boreal carbon budget within recent years remains highly uncertain. Here, we provide new estimates of recent (2003–2015) vegetation gross primary productivity (GPP), ecosystem respiration (Reco), net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE; Reco − GPP), and terrestrial methane (CH4) emissions for the Arctic‐boreal zone using a satellite data‐driven process‐model for northern ecosystems (TCFM‐Arctic), calibrated and evaluated using measurements from >60 tower eddy covariance (EC) sites. We used TCFM‐Arctic to obtain daily 1‐km2 flux estimates and annual carbon budgets for the pan‐Arctic‐boreal region. Across the domain, the model indicated an overall average NEE sink of −850 Tg CO2‐C year−1. Eurasian boreal zones, especially those in Siberia, contributed to a majority of the net sink. In contrast, the tundra biome was relatively carbon neutral (ranging from small sink to source). Regional CH4 emissions from tundra and boreal wetlands (not accounting for aquatic CH4) were estimated at 35 Tg CH4‐C year−1. Accounting for additional emissions from open water aquatic bodies and from fire, using available estimates from the literature, reduced the total regional NEE sink by 21% and shifted many far northern tundra landscapes, and some boreal forests, to a net carbon source. This assessment, based on in situ observations and models, improves our understanding of the high‐latitude carbon status and also indicates a continued need for integrated site‐to‐regional assessments to monitor the vulnerability of these ecosystems to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arctic terrestrial greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) play an important role in the global GHG budget. However, these GHG fluxes are rarely studied simultaneously, and our understanding of the conditions controlling them across spatial gradients is limited. Here, we explore the magnitudes and drivers of GHG fluxes across fine-scale terrestrial gradients during the peak growing season (July) in sub-Arctic Finland. We measured chamber-derived GHG fluxes and soil temperature, soil moisture, soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks, soil pH, soil carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, soil dissolved organic carbon content, vascular plant biomass, and vegetation type from 101 plots scattered across a heterogeneous tundra landscape (5 km²). We used these field data together with high-resolution remote sensing data to develop machine learning models to predict (i.e., upscale) daytime GHG fluxes across the landscape at 2-m resolution. Our results show that this region was on average a daytime net GHG sink during the growing season. Although our results suggest that this sink was driven by CO2 uptake, it also revealed small but widespread CH4 uptake in upland vegetation types, shifting this region to an average net CH4 sink at the landscape scale during growing season, despite the presence of high-emitting wetlands. Average N2O fluxes were negligible. CO2 fluxes were controlled primarily by annual average soil temperature and biomass (both increase net sink) and vegetation type, CH4 fluxes by soil moisture (increases net emissions) and vegetation type, and N2O fluxes by soil C/N (lower C/N increases net source). These results demonstrate the potential of high spatial resolution modelling of GHG fluxes in the Arctic. They also reveal the dominant role of CO2 fluxes across the tundra landscape, but suggest that CH4 uptake might play a significant role in the regional GHG budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termites play an essential role in decomposing dead plant material in tropical ecosystems and are thus major sources of gaseous C emissions in many environments. In African savannas, fungus-growing termites are among the ecologically most influential termite species. We studied the gas exchange from mounds of two closely related fungus-growing species (Macrotermes subhyalinus and M. michaelseni, respectively) in shaded and open habitats together with soil fluxes around the mounds. The fluxes from active termite mounds varied from 116 to 2105 mg CO2-C m-2 h-1 for CO2 and from 0.06 to 3.66 mg CH4-C m-2 h-1 for CH4 fluxes. Mound CO2 fluxes varied seasonally with a 64 % decrease and 35 % increase in the fluxes from dry to wet season at the open grassland and shaded bushland sites, respectively. During the wet season, the CO2 fluxes were significantly correlated with termite mound volume. The diurnal measurements from two M. michaelseni mounds suggest that the gas fluxes peak during daytime and midnight supporting the previously presented model of thermally driven air circulation inside the mound and possibly enhanced ventilation during the night by the opening of foraging routes. The stability of the mound gas fluxes over diurnal and annual scales coincides with the constant nature of the nest internal gas and thermal environment that guarantees continuously favorable conditions for the fungal symbiont. Soil fluxes of both CO2 and CH4 were enhanced at up to 2 m distance from the mounds compared to the local soil respiration, indicating that, in addition to mound ventilation structures, a small proportion of the produced metabolic gases leave the nest also via surrounding soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of precipitation (P) variability with respect to evapotranspiration (ET) and its two components, transpiration (T) and evaporation (E), from savannas continues to draw significant research interest given its relevance to a number of ecohydrological applications. Our study reports on 6 years of measured ET and estimated T and E from a grazed savanna grassland at Welgegund, South Africa. Annual P varied significantly with respect to amount (508 to 672 mm yr -1), with dry years characterized by infrequent early-season rainfall. T was determined using annual water-use efficiency and gross primary production estimates derived from eddy-covariance measurements of latent heat flux and net ecosystem CO2 exchange rates. The computed annual T for the 4 wet years with frequent early wet-season rainfall was nearly constant, 326±19 mm yr -1 (T/ET=0.51), but was lower and more variable between the 2 dry years (255 and 154 mm yr -1 , respectively). Annual T and T/ET were linearly related to the early wet-season storm frequency. The constancy of annual T during wet years is explained by the moderate water stress of C4 grasses as well as trees' ability to use water from deeper layers. During extreme drought, grasses respond to water availability with a dieback–regrowth pattern, reducing leaf area and transpiration and, thus, increasing the proportion of transpiration contributed by trees. The works suggest that the early-season P distribution explains the interannual variability in T , which should be considered when managing grazing and fodder production in these grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ecosystem-atmosphere flux of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) has important impacts on tropospheric oxidative capacity and the formation of secondary organic aerosols, influencing air quality and climate. Here we present within-canopy measurements of a set of dominant BVOCs in a managed spruce- and pine-dominated boreal forest located at the ICOS station Norunda in Sweden, collected using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) during 2014–2016, and vertical emission profiles derived from these data. Ozone concentrations were simultaneously measured in conjunction with these PTR-MS measurements. The main BVOCs investigated with the PTR-MS were isoprene, monoterpenes, methanol, acetaldehyde, and acetone. The distribution of BVOC sources and sinks in the forest canopy was explored using Lagrangian dispersion matrix methods, in particular continuous near-field theory. The forest canopy was found to contribute ca. 86 % to the total monoterpene emission in summertime, whereas the below-canopy and canopy emission was comparable (ca. 42 % and 58 % respectively) during the autumn period. This result indicates that boreal forest litter and other below-canopy emitters are a principle source for total forest monoterpene emissions during autumn months. During night, our results for methanol, acetone, and acetaldehyde seasonally present strong sinks in the forest canopy, especially in the autumn, likely due to the nighttime formation of dew on vegetation surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are a crucial component of biosphere-atmosphere interactions. In northern latitudes, climate change is amplified by feedback processes in which BVOCs have a recognized, yet poorly quantified role, mainly due to a lack of measurements and concomitant modeling gaps. Hence, current Earth system models mostly rely on temperature responses measured on vegetation from lower latitudes, rendering their predictions highly uncertain. Here, we show how tundra isoprene emissions respond vigorously to temperature increases, compared to model results. Our unique dataset of direct eddy covariance ecosystem-level isoprene measurements in two contrasting ecosystems exhibited Q10 (the factor by which the emission rate increases with a 10 °C rise in temperature) temperature coefficients of up to 20.8, that is, 3.5 times the Q10 of 5.9 derived from the equivalent model calculations. Crude estimates using the observed temperature responses indicate that tundra vegetation could enhance their isoprene emissions by up to 41% (87%)--that is, 46% (55%) more than estimated by models--with a 2 °C (4 °C) warming. Our results demonstrate that tundra vegetation possesses the potential to substantially boost its isoprene emissions in response to future rising temperatures, at rates that exceed the current Earth system model predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reasons for spatial and temporal variation in methane emission from mire ecosystems are not fully understood. Stable isotope signatures of the emitted methane can offer clues to the causes of these variations. We measured the methane emission (FCH4) and 13 C signature (δ13 C) of emitted methane by automated chambers at a hemiboreal mire for two growing seasons. In addition, we used ambient methane mixing ratios and δ13 C to calculate a mire-scale 13 C signature using a nocturnal boundary-layer accumulation approach. Microbial methanogenic and methanotrophic communities were determined by a captured metagenomics analysis. The chamber measurements showed large and systematic spatial variations in δ13 C-CH 4 of up to 15 ‰ but smaller and less systematic temporal variation. According to the spatial δ13 C– FCH4 relations, methanotrophy was unlikely to be the dominating cause for the spatial variation. Instead, these were an indication of the substrate availability of methanogenesis being a major factor in explaining the spatial variation. Genetic analysis indicated that methanogenic communities at all sample locations were able to utilize both hydrogenotrophic and acetoclastic pathways and could thus adapt to changes in the available substrate. The temporal variation in FCH4 and δ13 C over the growing seasons showed hysteresis-like behavior at high-emission locations, indicative of time-lagged responses to temperature and substrate availability. The upscaled chamber measurements and nocturnal boundary-layer accumulation measurements showed similar average δ13 C values of -81.3 ‰ and -79.3 ‰, respectively, indicative of hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis at the mire. The close correspondence of the δ13 C values obtained by the two methods lends confidence to the obtained mire-scale isotopic signature. This and other recently published data on δ13 C values of CH 4 emitted from northern mires are considerably lower than the values used in atmospheric inversion studies on methane sources, suggesting a need for revision of the model input. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent climate change mitigation strategies rely on the reduction of methane (CH 4) emissions. Carbon and hydrogen isotope ratio (δ13 C CH4 and δ2 H CH4) measurements can be used to distinguish sources and thus to understand the CH 4 budget better. The CH 4 emission estimates by models are sensitive to the isotopic signatures assigned to each source category, so it is important to provide representative estimates of the different CH 4 source isotopic signatures worldwide. We present new measurements of isotope signatures of various, mainly anthropogenic, CH 4 sources in Europe, which represent a substantial contribution to the global dataset of source isotopic measurements from the literature, especially for δ2 H CH4. They improve the definition of δ13 C CH4 from waste sources, and demonstrate the use of δ2 H CH4 for fossil fuel source attribution. We combined our new measurements with the last published database of CH 4 isotopic signatures and with additional literature, and present a new global database. We found that microbial sources are generally well characterised. The large variability in fossil fuel isotopic compositions requires particular care in the choice of weighting criteria for the calculation of a representative global value. The global dataset could be further improved by measurements from African, South American, and Asian countries, and more measurements from pyrogenic sources. We improved the source characterisation of CH 4 emissions using stable isotopes and associated uncertainty, to be used in top-down studies. We emphasise that an appropriate use of the database requires the analysis of specific parameters in relation to source type and the region of interest. The final version of the European CH 4 isotope database coupled with a global inventory of fossil and non-fossil δ13 C CH4 and δ2 H CH4 source signature measurements is available at 10.24416/UU01-YP43IN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reasons for spatial and temporal variation of methane emission from mire ecosystems are not fully understood. Stable isotope signatures of the emitted methane can offer cues to the causes of these variations. We measured the methane emission and 13C-signature of emitted methane by automated chambers at a temperate mire for two growing seasons. In addition, we used ambient methane mixing ratios and δ13C-CH4 to calculate a mire-scale 13C signature using a nocturnal boundary-layer accumulation approach. Microbial methanogenic and methanotrophic communities were determined by a captured metagenomics analysis. The chamber measurements showed large and systematic spatial variations in δ13C-CH4 of up to 15 ‰ but smaller and less systematic temporal variation. The trophic status of methanogenesis was the dominant factor explaining the spatial variation. Genetic analysis indicated that methanogenic communities at all sample locations were able to utilize both hydrogenotrophic and acetoclastic pathways and could thus adapt to trophic status. The temporal variation of methane emission and δ13C-CH4 over the growing seasons showed hysteresis-like behavior, indicative of time-lagged responses to temperature and trophic status. The up-scaled chamber measurements and nocturnal boundary-layer accumulation measurements showed similar average δ13C-CH4 values of -81.3 ‰ and -79.3 ‰, respectively, lending confidence to the use of mire scale isotopic signatures to be used in e.g. atmospheric inversion modelling of methane sources. The results obtained can constrain our theories on the variability of methane emission from mire ecosystems and be useful in development of numerical models of mire biogeochemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent climate change mitigation strategies rely on the reduction of methane (CH4) emissions. δ13CCH4 and δ²HCH4 measurements can be used to distinguish sources and thus to understand the CH4 budget better. The CH4 emission estimates by models are sensitive to the isotopic signatures assigned to each source category, so it is important to provide representative estimates of the different CH4 source isotopic signatures worldwide. We present new measurements of isotope signatures of various, mainly anthropogenic, CH4 sources in Europe, which represent a substantial contribution to the global dataset of source isotopic measurements from the literature, especially for δ²HCH4. They improve the definition of δ13CCH4 from waste sources, and demonstrate the use of δ²HCH4 for fossil fuel source attribution. Results from previous studies were combined in a common database that we updated with our new measurements, as well as with additional literature. We found that microbial sources are generally well characterised. The large variability in fossil fuels isotopic compositions requires particular care in the choice of weighting criteria for the calculation of a representative global value. The global dataset could be further improved by measurements from African, South American and Asian countries, as well as more measurements from pyrogenic sources. The final version of the European methane isotope database coupled with a global inventory of fossil and non-fossil δ13CCH4 and δ²HCH4 source signature measurements, is available at: https://doi.org/10.24416/UU01-4PO56T (Menoud et al., 2021a). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial communities of methane (CH4) producing methanogens and consuming methanotrophs play an important role for Earth's atmospheric CH4 budget. Despite their global significance, knowledge on how much they control the spatial variation in CH4 fluxes from peatlands is poorly understood. We studied variation in CH4 producing and consuming communities in a natural peatland dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum, via a metagenomics approach using custom designed hybridization-based oligonucleotide probes to focus on taxa and functions associated with methane cycling. We hypothesized that sites with different magnitudes of methane flux are occupied by structurally and functionally different microbial communities, despite the dominance of a single vascular plant species. To investigate this, nine plant-peat mesocosms dominated by the sedge Eriophorum vaginatum, with varying vegetation coverage, were collected from a temperate natural wetland and subjected to a simulated growing season. During the simulated growing season, measurements of CH4 emission, carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange and δ13C signature of emitted CH4 were made. Mesocosms 1 through 9 were classified into three categories according to the magnitude of CH4 flux. Gross primary production and ecosystem respiration followed the same pattern as CH4 fluxes, but this trend was not observed in net ecosystem exchange. We observed that genetic functional potential was of minor importance in explaining spatial variability of CH4 fluxes with only small shifts in taxonomic community and functional genes. In addition, a higher β-diversity was observed in samples with high CH4 emission. Among methanogens, Methanoregula, made up over 50% of the community composition. This, in combination with the remaining hydrogenotrophic methanogens matched the δ13C isotopic signature of emitted CH4. However, the presence of acetoclastic and methylotrophic taxa and type I, II and Verrucomicrobia methanotrophs indicates that the microbial community holds the ability to produce and consume CH4 in multiple ways. This is important in terms of future climate scenarios, where peatlands are expected to alter in nutrient status, hydrology, and peat biochemistry. Due to the high functional potential, we expect the community to be highly adaptive to future climate scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Arctic is exposed to even faster temperature changes than most other areas on Earth. Constantly increasing temperature will lead to thawing permafrost and changes in the methane (CH 4) emissions from wetlands. One of the places exposed to those changes is the Abisko–Stordalen Mire in northern Sweden, where climate and vegetation studies have been conducted since the 1970s. In our study, we analyzed field-scale methane emissions measured by the eddy covariance method at Abisko–Stordalen Mire for 3 years (2014–2016). The site is a subarctic mire mosaic of palsas, thawing palsas, fully thawed fens, and open water bodies. A bimodal wind pattern prevalent at the site provides an ideal opportunity to measure mire patches with different permafrost status with one flux measurement system. The flux footprint for westerly winds was dominated by elevated palsa plateaus, while the footprint was almost equally distributed between palsas and thawing bog-like areas for easterly winds. As these patches are exposed to the same climatic and weather conditions, we analyzed the differences in the responses of their methane emission for environmental parameters. The methane fluxes followed a similar annual cycle over the 3 study years, with a gentle rise during spring and a decrease during autumn, without emission bursts at either end of the ice-free season. The peak emission during the ice-free season differed significantly for the two mire areas with different permafrost status: the palsa mire emitted 19 mg-C m -2 d -1 and the thawing wet sector 40 mg-C m -2 d -1. Factors controlling the methane emission were analyzed using generalized linear models. The main driver for methane fluxes was peat temperature for both wind sectors. Soil water content above the water table emerged as an explanatory variable for the 3 years for western sectors and the year 2016 in the eastern sector. The water table level showed a significant correlation with methane emission for the year 2016 as well. Gross primary production, however, did not show a significant correlation with methane emissions. Annual methane emissions were estimated based on four different gap-filing methods. The different methods generally resulted in very similar annual emissions. The mean annual emission based on all models was 3.1 ± 0.3 g-C m -2 a -1 for the western sector and 5.5 ± 0.5 g-C m -2 a -1 for the eastern sector. The average annual emissions, derived from these data and a footprint climatology, were 2.7 ± 0.5 and 8.2 ± 1.5 g-C m -2 a -1 for the palsa and thawing surfaces, respectively. Winter fluxes were relatively high, contributing 27 %–45 % to the annual emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of precipitation (P) variability on evapotranspiration (ET) and its two components, transpiration (T) and evaporation (E) from savannas, continues to draw significant research interest given its relevance to a number of eco-hydrological applications. Our study reports on six years of measured ET and estimated T and E from a grazed savanna grassland in Welgegund, South Africa. Annual P varied significantly in amount (508 to 672 mm yr-1), with dry years characterized by infrequent early-season rainfall. T was determined using annual water-use efficiency and gross primary production estimates derived from eddy covariance measurements of latent heat flux and net ecosystem CO2 exchange rates. The computed annual T was nearly constant, 331 ± 11 mm yr-1 (T/ET=0.52), for the four wet years with frequent early wet-season rainfall, whereas annual T was 268 and 175 mm yr-1 during the dry years. Annual T/ET was linearly related to the early wet-season storm frequency. The constancy of annual T during wet years is explained by the moderate water stress of C4 grass and constant annual tree transpiration covering 15% of the landscape. However, grass transpiration declines during dry spells. Moreover, grasses respond to water availability with a dieback-regrowth pattern, reducing leaf area and transpiration during drought. These changes lead to an anomalous monthly T/ET relation to leaf-area index (LAI). The results highlight the role of the C4 grass layer in the hydrological balance and suggest that the grass response to dry spells and drought is reasonably described by precipitation timing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystems exchange climate-relevant trace gases with the atmosphere, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are a small but highly reactive part of the carbon cycle. VOCs have important ecological functions and implications for atmospheric chemistry and climate. We measured the ecosystem-level surface–atmosphere VOC fluxes using the eddy covariance technique at a shallow subarctic lake and an adjacent graminoid-dominated fen in northern Sweden during two contrasting periods: the peak growing season (mid-July) and the senescent period post-growing season (September–October). In July, the fen was a net source of methanol, acetaldehyde, acetone, dimethyl sulfide, isoprene, and monoterpenes. All of these VOCs showed a diel cycle of emission with maxima around noon and isoprene dominated the fluxes (93±22 µ mol m -2 d -1 , mean ± SE). Isoprene emission was strongly stimulated by temperature and presented a steeper response to temperature (Q10=14.5) than that typically assumed in biogenic emission models, supporting the high temperature sensitivity of arctic vegetation. In September, net emissions of methanol and isoprene were drastically reduced, while acetaldehyde and acetone were deposited to the fen, with rates of up to -6.7±2.8 µ mol m -2 d -1 for acetaldehyde. Remarkably, the lake was a sink for acetaldehyde and acetone during both periods, with average fluxes up to -19±1.3 µ mol m -2 d -1 of acetone in July and up to -8.5±2.3 µ mol m -2 d -1 of acetaldehyde in September. The deposition of both carbonyl compounds correlated with their atmospheric mixing ratios, with deposition velocities of -0.23±0.01 and -0.68±0.03 cm s -1 for acetone and acetaldehyde, respectively. Even though these VOC fluxes represented less than 0.5 % and less than 5 % of the CO 2 and CH 4 net carbon ecosystem exchange, respectively, VOCs alter the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere. Thus, understanding the response of their emissions to climate change is important for accurate prediction of the future climatic conditions in this rapidly warming area of the planet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystems exchange climate-relevant trace gases with the atmosphere, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are a small but highly reactive part of the carbon cycle. VOCs have important ecological functions and implications for atmospheric chemistry and climate. We measured the ecosystem-level surface-atmosphere VOC fluxes using the eddy covariance technique at a shallow subarctic lake and an adjacent graminoid-dominated fen in Northern Sweden during two contrasting periods: the peak growing season (mid July) and the senescent period post-growing season (September-October). In July, the fen was a net source of methanol, acetaldehyde, acetone, DMS, isoprene, and monoterpenes. All of these VOCs showed a diel cycle of emission with maxima around noon and isoprene dominated the fluxes (93 ± 22 µmol m-2 day-1, mean ± SE). Isoprene emission was strongly stimulated by temperature and presented a steeper response to temperature (Q10 = 14.5) than that typically assumed in biogenic emission models, supporting the high temperature sensitivity of arctic vegetation. In September, net emissions of methanol and isoprene were drastically reduced, while acetaldehyde and acetone were deposited to the fen, with rates of up to -6.7 ± 2.8 µmol m-2 day-1 for acetaldehyde. Remarkably, the lake was a sink for acetaldehyde and acetone during both periods, with average fluxes up to -19 ± 1.3 µmol m-2 day-1 of acetone in July and up to -8.5 ± 2.3 µmol m-2 day-1 of acetaldehyde in September. The deposition of both carbonyl compounds correlated with their atmospheric mixing ratios, with deposition velocities of -0.23 ± 0.01 and -0.68 ± 0.03 cm s-1 for acetone and acetaldehyde, respectively. Even though these VOC fluxes represented less than 0.5 % and less than 5 % of the CO2 and CH4 net carbon ecosystem exchange, respectively, VOCs alter the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere. Thus, understanding the response of their emissions to climate change is important for accurate prediction of the future climatic conditions in this rapidly warming area of the planet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main source of soil moisture variability in savanna ecosystems is pulsed rainfall. Rainfall pulsing impacts water‐stress durations, soil moisture switching between wet‐to‐dry and dry‐to‐wet states, and soil moisture spectra as well as derived measures from it such as soil moisture memory. Rainfall pulsing is also responsible for rapid changes in grassland leaf area and concomitant changes in evapotranspirational (ET) losses, which then impact soil moisture variability. With the use of a hierarchy of models and soil moisture measurements, temporal variability in root‐zone soil moisture and water‐stress periods are analysed at four African sites ranging from grass to miombo savannas. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and potential ET (PET)‐adjusted ET model predict memory timescale and dry persistence in agreement with measurements. The model comparisons demonstrate that dry persistence and mean annual dry periods must account for seasonal and interannual changes in maximum ET represented by NDVI and to a lesser extent PET. Interestingly, the precipitation intensity and soil moisture memory were linearly related across three savannas with ET/infiltration ∼ 1.0. This relation and the variability of length and timing of dry periods are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field measurement data on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are still scarce for many land-use types in Africa, causing a high level of uncertainty in GHG budgets. To address this gap, we present in situ measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) emissions from the lowlands of southern Kenya. We conducted eight chamber measurement campaigns on gas exchange from four dominant land-use types (LUTs) comprising (1) cropland, (2) bushland, (3) grazing land, and (4) conservation land between 29 November 2017 and 3 November 2018, accounting for regional seasonality (wet and dry seasons and transitions periods). Mean CO2 emissions for the whole observation period were the highest by a significant margin (p value < 0.05) in the conservation land (75±6 mg CO2 -C m -2 h -1) compared to the three other sites, which ranged from 45±4 mg CO2 -C m -2 h -1 (bushland) to 50±5 mg CO2 -C m -2 h -1 (grazing land). Furthermore, CO2 emissions varied between seasons, with significantly higher emissions in the wet season than the dry season. Mean N2O emissions were highest in cropland (2.7±0.6 µ g N2O -N m -2 h -1) and lowest in bushland (1.2±0.4 µ g N2O -N m -2 h -1) but did not vary with season. In fact, N2O emissions were very low both in the wet and dry seasons, with slightly elevated values during the early days of the wet seasons in all LUTs. On the other hand, CH4 emissions did not show any significant differences across LUTs and seasons. Most CH4 fluxes were below the limit of detection (LOD, ±0.03 mg CH4 -C m -2 h -1). We attributed the difference in soil CO2 emissions between the four sites to soil C content, which differed between the sites and was highest in the conservation land. In addition, CO2 and N2O emissions positively correlated with soil moisture, thus an increase in soil moisture led to an increase in emissions. Furthermore, vegetation cover explained the seasonal variation in soil CO2 emissions as depicted by a strong positive correlation between the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and CO2 emissions, most likely because, with more green (active) vegetation cover, higher CO2 emissions occur due to enhanced root respiration compared to drier periods. Soil temperature did not show a clear correlation with either CO2 or N2O emissions, which is likely due to the low variability in soil temperature between seasons and sites. Based on our results, soil C, active vegetation cover, and soil moisture are key drivers of soil GHG emissions in all the tested LUTs in southern Kenya. Our results are within the range of previous GHG flux measurements from soils from various LUTs in other parts of Kenya and contribute to more accurate baseline GHG emission estimates from Africa, which are key to reducing uncertainties in global GHG budgets as well as for informing policymakers when discussing low-emission development strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of precipitation (P) variability on evapotranspiration (ET) and its two components transpiration (T) and evaporation (E) rates from savannas continues to draw significant research interest given its relevance to a number of eco-hydrological applications. The work here reports on six years of measured ET and energy flux components, and estimated T from a grazed savanna grassland collected at a research site situated in Welgegund, South Africa. During this period, annual P varied considerably in amount (421 mm to 614 mm), rainy season length and precipitation intensity. T was estimated using annual water use efficiency and gross primary production determined from eddy-covariance measurements of net ecosystem CO2 exchange rates. The computed annual T was highly constrained to 352 ± 8 mm (T/ET = 0.55) for four wet years when rainfall was near or above the long-term mean. This is explained by the near constant annual tree transpiration and moderate water stress of C4 grasses during these years. In a drought year with intermittent rainfall, the annual ecosystem T was reduced due to grass dieback-regrowth that alters the temporal dynamics of bare soil cover and infiltration, and complicates monthly T/ET relation to leaf-area index (LAI). However, annual ET remains approximately equal to annual precipitation (P) even during the drought year due to increased soil evaporation. Indeed, at annual scales, ET ≈ P and annual T is conservative despite variation in amount and timing in rainfall, due to constant water use of mature trees, and the ability of C4 grasses to maintain transpiration at moderate water stress and effectively use pulsed rainfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For effective climate change mitigation strategies, adequate data on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a wide range of land-use and land cover types area prerequisite. However, GHG field measurement data are still scarce for many land-use types in Africa, causing a high uncertainty in GHG budgets. To address this knowledge gap, we present in situ measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) emissions in the lowland part of southern Kenya. We conducted chamber measurements on gas exchange from four dominant land-use types (LUTs) and included (1) cropland, (2) grazed savanna, (3) bushland, and (4) conservation land. Between 29 November 2017 to 3 November 2018, eight measurement campaigns were conducted accounting for regional seasonality (including wet and dry seasons and transitions periods) in each LUT. Mean CO2 emissions for the whole observation period were significantly higher (p-value < 0.05) in the conservation land (75 ± 6 mg CO2-C m-2 h-1) compared to the three other sites, which ranged from 45 ± 4 mg CO2-C m-2 h-1 (bushland) to 50 ± 5 mg CO2-C m-2 h-1 (grazing land). Furthermore, CO2 emissions varied between seasons, with significantly higher emissions during the wet season than the dry season. In contrast, mean N2O emissions were not different between the four sites, ranging from 1.2 ± 0.4 µg N2O-N m-2 h-1 (in bushland) to 2.7 ± 0.6 µg N2O-N m-2 h-1 (in cropland). However, N2O emissions were slightly elevated during the early days of the wet season. CH4 emissions did not show any significant differences between LUTs and seasons, and most values were below the limit of detection (LOD, 0.03 mg CH4-C m-2 h-1). We attributed the difference in soil CO2 emissions between the four sites to soil C content, which differed between the sites and was highest in the conservation land. CO2 and N2O emissions positively correlated to soil moisture, thus an increase in soil moisture led to an increase in emissions. Soil temperature did not show a clear correlation with either, most likely due to the low annual variation in soil temperature. We found a strong positive correlation between soil CO2 and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), but we observed no correlation with soil N2O emissions. We conclude that soil moisture is a key factor in soil GHG emissions in these tropical savanna LUTs. In addition, including vegetation indices in the model greatly improved the results, thus showing the importance of vegetation cover in predicting soil emissions. Our results are within the range of previous GHG flux measurements from soils from various land-use types in other parts of Kenya and contribute to more accurate baseline GHG emission estimates from Africa, which are key for informing policymakers when discussing low-emission development strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We have analyzed decade‐long methane flux data set from a boreal fen, Siikaneva, together with data on environmental parameters and carbon dioxide exchange. The methane flux showed seasonal cycle but no systematic diel cycle. The highest fluxes were observed in July–August with average value of 73 nmol m−2 s−1. Wintertime fluxes were small but positive, with January–March average of 6.7 nmol m−2 s−1. Daily average methane emission correlated best with peat temperatures at 20–35 cm depths. The second highest correlation was with gross primary production (GPP). The best correspondence between emission algorithm and measured fluxes was found for a variable‐slope generalized linear model (r2 = 0.89) with peat temperature at 35 cm depth and GPP as explanatory variables, slopes varying between years. The homogeneity of slope approach indicated that seasonal variation explained 79% of the sum of squares variation of daily average methane emission, the interannual variation in explanatory factors 7.0%, functional change 5.3%, and random variation 9.1%. Significant correlation between interannual variability of growing season methane emission and that of GPP indicates that on interannual time scales GPP controls methane emission variability, crucially for development of process‐based methane emission models. Annual methane emission ranged from 6.0 to 14 gC m−2 and was 2.7 ± 0.4% of annual GPP. Over 10‐year period methane emission was 18% of net ecosystem exchange as carbon. The weak relation of methane emission to water table position indicates that space‐to‐time analogy, used to extrapolate spatial chamber data in time, may not be applicable in seasonal time scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Arctic tundra plays an important role in the carbon cycle as it stores 50% of global soil organic carbon reservoirs. The processes (fluxes) regulating these stocks are predicted to change due to direct and indirect effects of climate change. Understanding the current and future carbon balance calls for a summary of the level of knowledge regarding chamber-derived carbon dioxide (CO2) flux studies. Here, we describe progress from recently (2000–2016) published studies of growing-season CO2 flux chamber measurements, namely GPP (gross primary production), ER (ecosystem respiration), and NEE (net ecosystem exchange), in the tundra region. We review the study areas and designs along with the explanatory environmental drivers used. Most of the studies were conducted in Alaska and Fennoscandia, and we stress the need for measuring fluxes in other tundra regions, particularly in more extreme climatic, productivity, and soil conditions. Soil respiration and other greenhouse gas measurements were seldom included in the studies. Although most of the environmental drivers of CO2 fluxes have been relatively well investigated (such as the effect of vegetation type and soil microclimate on fluxes), soil nutrients, other greenhouse gases and disturbance regimes require more research as they might define the future carbon balance. Particular attention should be paid to the effects of shrubification, geomorphology, and other disturbance effects such as fire events, and disease and herbivore outbreaks. An improved conceptual framework and understanding of underlying processes of biosphere–atmosphere CO2 exchange will provide more information on carbon cycling in the tundra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measured methane fluxes of a patterned bog situated in Siikaneva in southern Finland from six different plant community types in three growing seasons (2012-2014) using the static chamber method with chamber exposure of 35 min. A mixed-effects model was applied to quantify the effect of the controlling factors on the methane flux. The plant community types differed from each other in their water level, species composition, total leaf area (LAITOT/and leaf area of aerenchymatous plant species (LAIAER/. Methane emissions ranged from -309 to 1254 mgm-2 d-1. Although methane fluxes increased with increasing peat temperature, LAITOT and LAIAER, they had no correlation with water table or with plant community type. The only exception was higher fluxes from hummocks and high lawns than from high hummocks and bare peat surfaces in 2013 and from bare peat surfaces than from high hummocks in 2014. Chamber fluxes upscaled to ecosystem level for the peak season were of the same magnitude as the fluxes measured with the eddy covariance (EC) technique. In 2012 and in August 2014 there was a good agreement between the two methods; in 2013 and in July 2014, the chamber fluxes were higher than the EC fluxes. Net fluxes to soil, indicating higher methane oxidation than production, were detected every year and in all community types. Our results underline the importance of both LAIAER and LAITOT in controlling methane fluxes and indicate the need for automatized chambers to reliably capture localized events to support the more robust EC method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of methane (CH4/to the atmosphere. They emit CH4 because decomposition of soil organic matter in waterlogged anoxic conditions produces CH4, in addition to carbon dioxide (CO2/. Production of CH4 and how much of it escapes to the atmosphere depend on a multitude of environmental drivers. Models simulating the processes leading to CH4 emissions are thus needed for upscaling observations to estimate present CH4 emissions and for producing scenarios of future atmospheric CH4 concentrations. Aiming at a CH4 model that can be added to models describing peatland carbon cycling, we composed a model called HIMMELI that describes CH4 build-up in and emissions from peatland soils. It is not a full peatland carbon cycle model but it requires the rate of anoxic soil respiration as input. Driven by soil temperature, leaf area index (LAI) of aerenchymatous peatland vegetation, and water table depth (WTD), it simulates the concentrations and transport of CH4, CO2, and oxygen (O2/in a layered one-dimensional peat column. Here, we present the HIMMELI model structure and results of tests on the model sensitivity to the input data and to the description of the peat column (peat depth and layer thickness), and demonstrate that HIMMELI outputs realistic fluxes by comparing modeled and measured fluxes at two peatland sites. As HIMMELI describes only the CH4-related processes, not the full carbon cycle, our analysis revealed mechanisms and dependencies that may remain hidden when testing CH4 models connected to complete peatland carbon models, which is usually the case. Our results indicated that (1) the model is flexible and robust and thus suitable for different environments; (2) the simulated CH4 emissions largely depend on the prescribed rate of anoxic respiration; (3) the sensitivity of the total CH4 emission to other input variables is mainly mediated via the concentrations of dissolved gases, in particular, the O2 concentrations that affect the CH4 production and oxidation rates; (4) with given input respiration, the peat column description does not significantly affect the simulated CH4 emissions in this model version. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measured methane fluxes of a patterned bog from six different plant community types in three growing seasons 2012-2014 using the static chamber method. A mixed effects model was applied for quantifying the effect of the controlling factors on the methane flux. The plant community types differed from each other in their water level, total leaf area (LAITOT) and leaf area of aerenchymatous plant species (LAIAER). Excluding the highest 2.5 % of all fluxes, methane emissions ranged from -309 to 556 mg m-2 d-1. Although methane fluxes increased with increasing peat temperature, LAITOT and LAIAER, they had no correlation with water table or with plant community type. The only exception were higher fluxes from hummocks than from other plant community types in 2013. Chamber fluxes upscaled to ecosystem level for the peak season were of the same magnitude as the fluxes measured with the eddy covariance (EC) technique. In 2012 and in August 2014 there was a good agreement between the two methods, in 2013 and in July 2014, the chamber fluxes were higher than the EC fluxes. Net fluxes to soil, indicating higher methane oxidation than production, were detected every year and on all community types. Exceptionally high methane emissions up to 17 000 mg m-2 d-1 were measured sporadically in 2013 and 2014. These extreme emissions not detected in EC measurements we were not able to exclude as measurement errors and they did not correlate with any measured variables. Our results underline the importance of both LAIAER and LAITOT in controlling methane fluxes and indicate need for automatized chambers to reliably capture localized events to support more robust EC method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical savannas and grasslands are estimated to contribute significantly to the total primary production of all terrestrial vegetation. Large parts of African savannas and grasslands are used for agriculture and cattle grazing, but the carbon flux data available from these areas are limited. This study explores carbon dioxide fluxes measured with the eddy covariance method for 3 years at a grazed savanna grassland in Welgegund, South Africa. The tree cover around the measurement site, grazed by cattle and sheep, was around 15 %. The night-time respiration was not significantly dependent on either soil moisture or soil temperature on a weekly temporal scale, whereas on an annual timescale higher respiration rates were observed when soil temperatures were higher. The carbon dioxide balances of the years 2010-2011, 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 were -85±16, 67±20 and 139±13 gCm-2 yr-1, respectively. The yearly variation was largely determined by the changes in the early wet season fluxes (September to November) and in the mid-growing season fluxes (December to January). Early rainfall enhanced the respiratory capacity of the ecosystem throughout the year, whereas during the mid-growing season high rainfall resulted in high carbon uptake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In boreal bogs plant species are low in number, but they differ greatly in their growth forms and photosynthetic properties. We assessed how ecosystem carbon (C) sink dynamics were affected by seasonal variations in the photosynthetic rate and leaf area of different species. Photosynthetic properties (light response parameters), leaf area development and areal cover (abundance) of the species were used to quantify species-specific net and gross photosynthesis rates (PN and PG, respectively), which were summed to express ecosystem-level PN and PG. The ecosystem-level PG was compared with a gross primary production (GPP) estimate derived from eddy covariance (EC) measurements.Species areal cover, rather than differences in photosynthetic properties, determined the species with the highest PG of both vascular plants and Sphagna. Species-specific contributions to the ecosystem PG varied over the growing season, which, in turn, determined the seasonal variation in ecosystem PG. The upscaled growing season PG estimate, 230 g C m−2, agreed well with the GPP estimated by the EC (243 g C m−2).Sphagna were superior to vascular plants in ecosystem-level PG throughout the growing season but had a lower PN. PN results indicated that areal cover of the species, together with their differences in photosynthetic parameters, shape the ecosystem-level C balance. Species with low areal cover but high photosynthetic efficiency appear to be potentially important for the ecosystem C sink. Results imply that functional diversity, i.e., the presence of plant groups with different seasonal timing and efficiency of photosynthesis, may increase the stability of C sinks of boreal bogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) play an important role in the chemistry of the troposphere, especially in the formation of tropospheric ozone (O3) and secondary organic aerosols (SOA). Ecosystems produce and emit a large number of BVOCs. It is estimated on a global scale that approximately 90% of annual BVOC emissions are from terrestrial sources. In this study, measurements of BVOCs were conducted at the Welgegund measurement station (South Africa), which is considered to be a regionally representative background site situated in savannah grasslands. Very few BVOC measurements exist for savannah grasslands and results presented in this study are the most extensive for this type of landscape. Samples were collected twice a week for 2 h during the daytime and 2 h during the night-time through two long-term sampling campaigns from February 2011 to February 2012 and from December 2013 to February 2015, respectively. Individual BVOCs were identified and quantified using a thermal desorption instrument, which was connected to a gas chromatograph and a mass selective detector. The annual median concentrations of isoprene, 2-methyl-3-butene-2-ol (MBO), monoterpene and sesquiterpene (SQT) during the first campaign were 14, 7, 120 and 8 pptv, respectively, and 14, 4, 83 and 4 pptv, respectively, during the second campaign. The sum of the concentrations of the monoterpenes were at least an order of magnitude higher than the concentrations of other BVOC species during both sampling campaigns, with -pinene being the most abundant species. The highest BVOC concentrations were observed during the wet season and elevated soil moisture was associated with increased BVOC concentrations. However, comparisons with measurements conducted at other landscapes in southern Africa and the rest of the world that have more woody vegetation indicated that BVOC concentrations were, in general, significantly lower for savannah grasslands. Furthermore, BVOC concentrations were an order of magnitude lower compared to total aromatic concentrations measured at Welgegund. An analysis of concentrations by wind direction indicated that isoprene concentrations were higher from the western sector that is considered to be a relatively clean regional background region with no large anthropogenic point sources, while wind direction did not indicate any significant differences in the concentrations of the other BVOC species. Statistical analysis indicated that soil moisture had the most significant impact on atmospheric levels of MBO, monoterpene and SQT concentrations, whereas temperature had the greatest influence on isoprene levels. The combined O3 formation potentials of all the BVOCs measured calculated with maximum incremental reactivity (MIR) coefficients during the first and second campaign were 1162 and 1022 pptv, respectively. -Pinene and limonene had the highest reaction rates with O3, whereas isoprene exhibited relatively small contributions to O3 depletion. Limonene, α-pinene and terpinolene had the largest contributions to the OH reactivity of BVOCs measured at Welgegund for all of the months during both sampling campaigns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are important role players in the chemistry of the troposphere, especially in the formation of tropospheric ozone (O3) and secondary organic aerosols (SOA). Ecosystems produce and emit a large number of BVOCs. It is estimated on a global scale that approximately 90% of annual VOC emissions are BVOCs. In this study, measurements of BVOCs were conducted at the Welgegund measurement station (South Africa), which is considered to be a regionally representative background site situated in savannah grassland. Very few BVOC measurements exist for grassland savannah and results presented in this study are the most extensive for this type of landscape. Samples were collected twice a week for two hours during daytime and two hours during night-time through two long-term sampling campaigns from February 2011 to February 2012 and from December 2013 to February 2015. Individual BVOCs were identified and quantified using a thermal desorption instrument, connected to a gas chromatograph and a mass selective detector. The annual median concentrations of isoprene, 2-methyl-3-butene-2-ol (MBO), monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (SQT) during the first campaign were 14, 7, 120 and 8 pptv, respectively, and 14, 4, 83 and 4 pptv, respectively, during the second campaign. The sum of the concentrations of the monoterpenes were at least an order of magnitude higher than the concentrations of other BVOC species during both sampling campaigns, with α-pinene being the most abundant species. The highest BVOC concentrations were observed during the wet season and elevated soil moisture was associated with increased BVOC concentrations. However, comparisons with measurements conducted at other landscapes in southern Africa and the rest of the world that have more woody vegetation indicated that BVOC concentrations were, in general, significantly lower. Furthermore, BVOC concentrations were an order of magnitude lower compared to total aromatic concentrations measured at Welgegund. An analysis of concentrations by wind direction indicated that isoprene concentrations were higher from the western direction, while wind direction did not indicate any significant differences in the concentrations of the other BVOC species. Statistical analysis indicated that soil moisture had the most significant impact on atmospheric levels of MBO, monoterpenes and SQT concentrations, while temperature had the greatest influence on isoprene levels. The combined O3 formation potentials of all the BVOCs measured calculated with MIR coefficients during the first and second campaign were 1162 and 1022 pptv, respectively. α-Pinene and limonene had the highest reaction rates with O3, while isoprene exhibited relatively small contributions to O3 depletion. Limonene, α-pinene and terpinolene had the largest contributions to the OH-reactivity of BVOCs measured at Welgegund for all of the months during both sampling campaigns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of ecosystem services is entering the agenda of land-use planning and scientists optimistically expect it to inform planners and decision-makers about the benefits that ecosystems provide. While tools and methods have been developed for mapping and valuing ecosystem services, only little attention has been paid to the practical application of the approach or its institutional preconditions and implications. We empirically analysed two urban planning processes for building residential areas in the outskirts of growing population centres in Finland. Our analysis of documents and interviews with planners focused on the benefits provided by ecosystems as well as the associated rights and responsibilities. We found that the concept ‘ecosystem service’ was not used, yet various benefits were identified. The rights of different stakeholders to ecosystem services were not explicitly identified, but many ecosystem services were perceived as public goods and particularly access to recreation was highlighted as an important justification for green areas. The results show that while the ecosystem services approach introduces new insights to land-use planning, it is still not embedded in the current practices or institutions. Operationalizing ecosystem services requires institutional adaptation, case-specific tailoring of methods, and deliberation among practitioners and stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Tropical savannas and grasslands are estimated to contribute significantly to the total primary production of all terrestrial vegetation. Large parts of African savannas and grasslands are used for agriculture and cattle grazing, but the carbon flux data available from these areas is limited. This study explores carbon dioxide fluxes measured with the eddy covariance method for three years at a grazed savanna grassland in Welgegund, South Africa. The tree cover around the measurement site, grazed by cattle and sheep, was around 15%. The night-time respiration was not significantly dependent on either soil moisture or soil temperature on a weekly temporal scale, whereas on an annual time scale higher respiration rates were observed when soil temperatures were higher. The yearly carbon dioxide balances of the growing seasons 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 were -85, 67 and 139 g C m-2 yr-1, respectively. The yearly variation was largely determined by the changes in the early wet season fluxes (September to November) and in the mid-growing season fluxes (December to January). Early rainfall enhanced the respiratory capacity of the ecosystem throughout the year, whereas during the mid-growing season high rainfall resulted in high carbon uptake. This study underlines the difficulty in establishing a functional relation between the total ecosystem respiration and the environmental drivers in savanna ecosystems. Furthermore, the high inter-annual variation of carbon balance in savanna ecosystems is difficult to relate to environmental drivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In boreal bogs plant species are low in number, but they differ greatly in their growth forms and photosynthetic properties. We assessed how ecosystem carbon (C) sink dynamics were affected by seasonal variations in photosynthetic rate and leaf area of different species. Photosynthetic properties (light-response parameters), leaf area development and areal cover (abundance) of the species were used to quantify species-specific net and gross photosynthesis rates (PN and PG, respectively), which were summed to express ecosystem-level PN and PG. The ecosystem-level PG was compared with a gross primary production (GPP) estimate derived from eddy covariance measurements (EC). Species areal cover rather than differences in photosynthetic properties determined the species with the highest PG of both vascular plants and Sphagna. Species-specific contributions to the ecosystem PG varied over the growing season, which in turn determined the seasonal variation in ecosystem PG. The upscaled growing-season PG estimate, 230 g C m-2, agreed well with the GPP estimated by the EC, 243 g C m-2. Sphagna were superior to vascular plants in ecosystem-level PG throughout the growing season but had a lower PN. PN results indicated that areal cover of the species together with their differences in photosynthetic parameters shape the ecosystem-level C balance. Species with low areal cover but high photosynthetic efficiency appear to be potentially important for the ecosystem C sink. Results imply that functional diversity may increase the stability of C sink of boreal bogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measured volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) at an urban background site near the city centre of Helsinki, Finland, northern Europe. The VOC and CO2 measurements were obtained between January 2013 and September 2014 whereas for CO a shorter measurement campaign in April- May 2014 was conducted. Both anthropogenic and biogenic sources were identified for VOCs in the study. Strong correlations between VOC fluxes and CO fluxes and traffic rates indicated anthropogenic source of many VOCs. The VOC with the highest emission rate to the atmosphere was methanol, which originated mostly from traffic and other anthropogenic sources. The traffic was also a major source for aromatic compounds in all seasons whereas isoprene was mostly emitted from biogenic sources during summer. Some amount of traffic-related isoprene emissions were detected during other seasons but this might have also been an instrumental contamination from cycloalkane products. Generally, the observed VOC fluxes were found to be small in comparison with previous urban VOC flux studies. However, the differences were probably caused by lower anthropogenic activities as the CO2 fluxes were also relatively small at the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the number and amount of biogenically emitted volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has been discussed in great detail. Depending on the ecosystem, the published number varies between a dozen and several hundred compounds. We present ecosystem exchange fluxes from a mixed oak-hornbeam forest in the Po Valley, Italy. The fluxes were measured by a proton transfer reaction-timeof- flight (PTR-ToF) mass spectrometer and calculated using the eddy covariance (EC) method. Detectable fluxes were observed for up to 29 compounds, dominated by isoprene, which comprised over 60% of the total upward flux (on a molar basis). The daily average of the total VOC upward flux was 10.4 nmolm-2 s-1. Methanol had the highest concentration and accounted for the largest downward flux. Methanol seemed to be deposited to dew, as the downward flux happened in the early morning, right after the calculated surface temperature came closest to the calculated dew point temperature. We estimated that up to 30% of the upward flux of methyl vinyl ketone (MVK) and methacrolein (MACR) originated from atmospheric oxidation of isoprene. A comparison between two methods for the flux detection (manual and automated) was made. Their respective advantages and disadvantages were discussed and the differences in their results shown. Both provide comparable results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant climate risks are associated with a positive carbon-temperature feedback in northern latitude carbon-rich ecosystems,making an accurate analysis of human impacts on the net greenhouse gas balance of wetlands a priority. Here, we provide a coherent assessment of the climate footprint of a network of wetland sites based on simultaneous and quasi-continuous ecosystem observations of CO2 and CH4 fluxes. Experimental areas are located both in natural and in managed wetlands and cover a wide range of climatic regions, ecosystem types, and management practices. Based on direct observations we predict that sustained CH4 emissions in natural ecosystems are in the long term (i.e., several centuries) typically offset by CO2 uptake, although with large spatiotemporal variability. Using a space-for-time analogy across ecological and climatic gradients, we represent the chronosequence from natural to managed conditions to quantify the "cost" of CH4 emissions for the benefit of net carbon sequestration. With a sustained pulse- response radiative forcing model, we found a significant increase in atmospheric forcing due to land management, in particular for wetland converted to cropland. Our results quantify the role of human activities on the climate footprint of northern wetlands and call for development of active mitigation strategies for managed wetlands and new guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) accounting for both sustained CH4 emissions and cumulative CO2 exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this study latent heat flux ( λE) measurements made at 65 boreal and arctic eddy-covariance ( EC) sites were analyses by using the Penman-Monteith equation. Sites were stratified into nine different ecosystem types: harvested and burnt forest areas, pine forests, spruce or fir forests, Douglas-fir forests, broadleaf deciduous forests, larch forests, wetlands, tundra and natural grasslands. The Penman-Monteith equation was calibrated with variable surface resistances against half-hourly eddy-covariance data and clear differences between ecosystem types were observed. Based on the modeled behavior of surface and aerodynamic resistances, surface resistance tightly control λE in most mature forests, while it had less importance in ecosystems having shorter vegetation like young or recently harvested forests, grasslands, wetlands and tundra. The parameters of the Penman-Monteith equation were clearly different for winter and summer conditions, indicating that phenological effects on surface resistance are important. We also compared the simulated λE of different ecosystem types under meteorological conditions at one site. Values of λE varied between 15% and 38% of the net radiation in the simulations with mean ecosystem parameters. In general, the simulations suggest that λE is higher from forested ecosystems than from grasslands, wetlands or tundra-type ecosystems. Forests showed usually a tighter stomatal control of λE as indicated by a pronounced sensitivity of surface resistance to atmospheric vapor pressure deficit. Nevertheless, the surface resistance of forests was lower than for open vegetation types including wetlands. Tundra and wetlands had higher surface resistances, which were less sensitive to vapor pressure deficits. The results indicate that the variation in surface resistance within and between different vegetation types might play a significant role in energy exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and atmosphere. These results suggest the need to take into account vegetation type and phenology in energy exchange modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetlands are the largest natural source of atmospheric methane. Here, we assess controls on methane flux using a database of approximately 19 000 instantaneous measurements from 71 wetland sites located across subtropical, temperate, and northern high latitude regions. Our analyses confirm general controls on wetland methane emissions from soil temperature, water table, and vegetation, but also show that these relationships are modified depending on wetland type (bog, fen, or swamp), region (subarctic to temperate), and disturbance. Fen methane flux was more sensitive to vegetation and less sensitive to temperature than bog or swamp fluxes. The optimal water table for methane flux was consistently below the peat surface in bogs, close to the peat surface in poor fens, and above the peat surface in rich fens. However, the largest flux in bogs occurred when dry 30-day averaged antecedent conditions were followed by wet conditions, while in fens and swamps, the largest flux occurred when both 30-day averaged antecedent and current conditions were wet. Drained wetlands exhibited distinct characteristics, e.g. the absence of large flux following wet and warm conditions, suggesting that the same functional relationships between methane flux and environmental conditions cannot be used across pristine and disturbed wetlands. Together, our results suggest that water table and temperature are dominant controls on methane flux in pristine bogs and swamps, while other processes, such as vascular transport in pristine fens, have the potential to partially override the effect of these controls in other wetland types. Because wetland types vary in methane emissions and have distinct controls, these ecosystems need to be considered separately to yield reliable estimates of global wetland methane release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peoples' housing practices are changing and their mobility is increasing in contemporary society. An increasing and more diverse use of second homes raises new governance challenges. We apply the concepts of policy integration and policy coherence to analyze the governance of second homes in Finland. We explore two case study areas rich with second homes by analyzing policy and planning documents and conducting interviews in four policy areas: (i) land use planning policy, (ii) regional and municipal development policies, (iii) tourism policy, and (iv) rural and island policies. The results show that second homes are often addressed only implicitly or indirectly. Contradicting policy goals between land use planning policy and rural policy are identified at the national level, as well as numerous conflicts at the local level. Interviews reveal that second homes are considered as a major societal phenomenon that should be addressed more in policy and planning instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light pollution is increasingly affecting ecosystems and human health. We present results from an online survey aimed to chart what aspects of lighting are considered harmful and how light pollution is perceived by the public. We focus on affluent societies by using Finland as an example of a northern industrialised country. The survey generated 2053 responses, particularly from well-educated urban persons living in residential areas and interested in astronomy or environmental issues. The results show that the lighting of residential areas and lighting serving traffic are considered the most common sources of light pollution while commercial lighting is perceived as the most annoying form of light use. Respondents commonly considered light pollution as a disturbance for outdoor recreation and relaxation. The results suggest that the ecological and health effects of light pollution emphasised by the research are poorly known by the people emphasising the aesthetic aspects. The results indicate relatively wide but passive acceptance for policy measures aimed at reducing light pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Many wetland ecosystems such as peatlands and wet tundra hold large amounts of organic carbon (C) in their soils, and are thus important in the terrestrial C cycle. We have synthesized data on the carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange obtained from eddy covariance measurements from 12 wetland sites, covering 1–7 years at each site, across Europe and North America, ranging from ombrotrophic and minerotrophic peatlands to wet tundra ecosystems, spanning temperate to arctic climate zones. The average summertime net ecosystem exchange of CO2 (NEE) was highly variable between sites. However, all sites with complete annual datasets, seven in total, acted as annual net sinks for atmospheric CO2. To evaluate the influence of gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration ( Reco) on NEE, we first removed the artificial correlation emanating from the method of partitioning NEE into GPP and Reco. After this correction neither Reco ( P= 0.162) nor GPP ( P= 0.110) correlated significantly with NEE on an annual basis. Spatial variation in annual and summertime Reco was associated with growing season period, air temperature, growing degree days, normalized difference vegetation index and vapour pressure deficit. GPP showed weaker correlations with environmental variables as compared with Reco, the exception being leaf area index (LAI), which correlated with both GPP and NEE, but not with Reco. Length of growing season period was found to be the most important variable describing the spatial variation in summertime GPP and Reco; global warming will thus cause these components to increase. Annual GPP and NEE correlated significantly with LAI and pH, thus, in order to predict wetland C exchange, differences in ecosystem structure such as leaf area and biomass as well as nutritional status must be taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boreal forests emit a large amount of monoterpenes into the atmosphere. Traditionally these emissions are assumed to originate as evaporation from large storage pools. Thus, their diurnal cycle would depend mostly on temperature. However, there is indication that a significant part of the monoterpene emission would originate directly from de novo synthesis. By applying 13CO2 fumigation and analyzing the isotope fractions with proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) and classical GC-MS, we determined the fractions of monoterpene emissions originating from de novo biosynthesis in Pinus sylvestris (58%), Picea abies (33.5%), Larix decidua (9.8%) and Betula pendula (100%). Application of the observed split between de novo and pool emissions from P. sylvestris in a hybrid emission algorithm resulted in a better description of ecosystem scale monoterpene emissions from a boreal Scots pine forest stand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]