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Facility with learning from multiple text documents is critical for college and career readiness. However, children with reading difficulties and disabilities have been largely excluded from research on multiple document comprehension. Accordingly, little is known about how children with reading difficulties and disabilities perform on multiple-document tasks, the factors that predict their performance, and how best to foster their development of this skill. To begin to fill these gaps, we examined concurrent predictors of one dimension of multiple-document comprehension, intertextual integration (ie, the ability to integrate information presented across two or more text documents), among third-grade children with reading difficulties and disabilities (N = 70). Correlational analyses revealed that children's intertextual integration performance was significantly and positively associated with single-document comprehension (SDC) but not with word-level reading (WLR) or passage-reading fluency (PRF). Multiple-regression analyses indicated that SDC significantly predicted intertextual integration but that WLR and PRF did not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mindset involves an array of beliefs related to the malleability of certain attributes, including intelligence. One's growth mindset comprises a variety of cognitive and motivational factors (e.g., learning goals, effort beliefs) and the perception that skill attainment and outcome in any domain are tethered to personal effort. A fixed mindset encompasses goals, beliefs, and perceptions that skill level is not malleable or impacted by effort. Structural equation models tested investigated direct and indirect pathways of mindset and motivational variables (i.e., learning goals, effort beliefs) with reading outcomes (i.e., word reading, fluency, reading comprehension) in a diverse sample of fourth grade students (n = 408) with reading difficulties. Results revealed a direct impact of fixed mindset (-0.21 to -0.36) and effort beliefs (0.18-0.31) on all standardized, reading-based outcomes. There were no significant mediating pathways. Results are juxtaposed to other research in this area, and practical implications are discussed. Growth mindset appears a robust predictor of positive academic outcomes, and it may be beneficial to facilitate growth mindset in classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We sought to examine second grade teachers' word use throughout the school day to identify the amount and type of teacher vocabulary use across content areas as well as to examine relationships between this teacher talk and student language and literacy achievement. Method: Second grade teachers (n = 64) and a random sample of half of their students (n = 619) participated. Teachers recorded instruction during the school day throughout the year, and students were assessed on vocabulary, grammar, and reading measures in the fall and spring. Results: Findings reveal second grade students hear thousands of words spoken by the teacher each hour of the school day, including more than a thousand different words per hour on average. The large majority of words were the most common words in the English language. On average, there were few academic or curriculum vocabulary words used, but this varied widely between teachers. The proportion of academic words used by teachers during the school day significantly predicted students' end-of-year vocabulary. Teachers who used more academic words had students with higher vocabulary achievement at the end of the school year. There were no other significant relationships between teachers' language and student achievement. Conclusions: This correlational evidence adds to the existing knowledge of the importance of academic language to student school outcomes and provides implications for further research in the area of academic language at the early elementary level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to describe what we know and what we still need to learn about literacy intervention for children who experience significant difficulties learning to read. We reviewed 14 meta‐analyses and systematic reviews of experimental and quasi‐experimental studies published in the last decade that examined the effects of reading and writing interventions in the elementary grades, including research focused on students with reading difficulties and disabilities, including dyslexia. We attended to moderator analyses, when available, to further refine what we know and need to learn about interventions. Findings from these reviews indicate that explicit and systematic interventions focusing on the code and meaning dimensions of reading and writing, and delivered one‐to‐one or in small groups, are likely to improve foundational code‐based reading skills, and to a lesser extent, meaning‐based skills, across elementary grade levels. Findings, at least in the upper elementary grades, indicate that some intervention features including standardized protocols, multiple components, and longer duration can yield stronger effects. And, integrating reading and writing interventions shows promise. We still need to learn more about specific instructional routines and components that provide more robust effects on students' ability to comprehend and individual differences in response to interventions. We discuss limitations of this review of reviews and suggest directions for future research to optimize implementation, particularly to understand for whom and under what conditions literacy interventions work best. The purpose of this paper is to describe what we know and what we still need to learn about literacy intervention for children who experience significant difficulties learning to read. We reviewed 14 meta‐analyses and systematic reviews of experimental and quasi‐experimental studies published in the last decade that examined the effects of reading and writing interventions in the elementary grades, including research focused on students with reading difficulties and disabilities, including dyslexia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects from different studies of reading and mindset interventions are inconsistent, pointing to the need to investigate moderating factors affecting response. In this study, we implemented two intensive intervention conditions for fourth-grade students with/at risk for reading disabilities (N = 360). One intervention condition included reading intervention only, whereas the other intervention condition incorporated both reading and mindset interventions. Through exploratory analyses, we examined student characteristics (sex, race/ethnicity, mindset) as moderators of the effects of the interventions on mindset, word attack, and reading comprehension outcomes and also explored potential interactions. Overall, we found no differential outcomes of intervention by race, sex, or initial mindset level. Our exploration of the interactions also did not yield any significant effects; however, we were limited by small sample sizes in subgroups. Overall, more research is needed to explore potential interactions moderating intervention outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research has focused on evaluating the relation between mindset and reading achievement. We used exploratory factor mixture models (E-FMMs) to examine the heterogeneity in reading achievement and mindset of 650 fourth graders with reading difficulties. To build E-FMMs, we conducted confirmatory factor analyses to examine the factor structure of scores of (a) mindset, (b) reading, and (c) mindset/reading combined. Our results indicated (a) a 2-factor model for mindset (General Mindset vs. Reading Mindset), (b) a 2-factor model for reading (Word Reading vs. Comprehension; four covariances), and (c) a combined model with significant correlations across mindset and reading factors. We ran E-FMMs on the combined model. Overall, we found three classes of students. We situate these results within the existing literature and discuss implications for practice and research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to examine verbal behaviors within communicative interactions at the teacher/classroom level among second-grade classrooms that differ in socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. Investigators recorded and examined language use across instructional periods for 38 second-grade classrooms. Teachers' communication behaviors were examined based on recorded samples across the school day throughout the school year. The proportion of use of questions, directives, and statements was examined for potential differences between classrooms that differed in SES. There was a significant relation between the proportion of facilitative and directive language at the classroom-level and class-level SES. Classrooms with a high proportion of free/reduced lunch eligibility were associated with high proportions of directives by teachers during the school day. The current findings suggest that students in low SES classes may be at a disadvantage in their access to adult facilitative communicative behaviors in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10170-5 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we conducted a review of reading intervention research (1988–2019) for upper elementary struggling readers and examined intervention area (e.g., foundational, comprehension, or multicomponent) and intensity (e.g., hours of intervention, group size, and individualization) as possible moderators of effects. We located 33 studies containing 49 treatment-comparison contrasts, found small effects for foundational reading skills (g = 0.22) and comprehension (g = 0.21), and decreased effects when considering standardized measures only. For intervention area, only multicomponent interventions predicted significant effects for both comprehension and foundational outcomes. For intensity, we did not find systematic evidence that longer or individualized interventions were associated with larger effects. However, interventions implemented in very small groups predicted larger comprehension outcomes. Overall, more research examining the quality of school provided reading instruction and how the severity of reading difficulties may impact effects of more intensive interventions is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much attention has been given to the development and validation of measures of growth mindset and its impact on learning, but the previous work has largely been focused on general measures of growth mindset. This research was focused on establishing the psychometric properties of a reading mindset (RM) measure among a sample of upper elementary school students and validating the measure through its relations with standardized measures of word reading and comprehension. The RM measure was developed to capture student's beliefs about their ability, learning goals, and effort during reading. Item response theory was used to select items that optimally measured the RM measure from a pool of existing items from previous research. The final five-item RM measure predicted reading comprehension outcomes above and beyond the effects of word reading, indicating that this measure may be an important tool for diagnosing noncognitive areas of improvement for developing readers. The implications, limitations, and future directions for expanding upon the measure were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of providing mindset intervention in addition to reading intervention compared with only reading intervention for fourth graders with reading difficulties. Reading intervention was provided daily in 45 min sessions throughout the school year. Mindset intervention occurred in small groups for 24–30 min lessons. Multilevel structural equation modeling (SEM) via n- level SEM was used to account for the latent variable representation of constructs, and the complex nesting and cross-classification structure of the data. Students in the reading intervention plus mindset condition significantly outperformed the business as usual condition on nonword reading (d = 0.35) as did students in the reading intervention condition (d = 0.20), who also outperformed the business as usual condition on phonological processing (d = 0.28). There were no significant differences among students in the three conditions on nonword reading, word reading, phonological processing, reading comprehension, or growth mindset. Initial reading achievement, mindset, and problem behavior did not generally moderate these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the underlying latent structure of items on the Mindset Assessment Profile (MAP) tool, explored whether subgroups of students exist based on the latent structure of MAP items, and tested whether subgroups were differentiated on standardized measures of reading comprehension, vocabulary, and word reading. Participants included 431 fourth-grade students. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a three-factor model provided the most parsimonious fit to the data. Results of exploratory finite mixture model analysis with auxiliary regression suggested five classes of students, with the students categorized as growth mindset—high effort profile having the highest observed reading comprehension (M = 451.98 and SD = 38.88) and vocabulary (M = 454.37 and SD = 34.74) scores. By contrast, students categorized as fixed mindset—higher effort had the lowest observed reading comprehension and vocabulary scores. Limitations and directions for future research, and implications for using MAP assessment to inform intervention are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effectiveness of the intensive implementation of a multicomponent reading intervention (Voyager Passport) with 306 fourth-grade students with severe reading difficulties. Students with reading comprehension achievement below the 15th percentile in the fall of fourth grade were randomly assigned to the intensive intervention or to typical school services. Students assigned to the intensive intervention were placed in instructional groups of two to three students and received daily, 45-minute sessions of supplemental, multicomponent reading intervention throughout the school year. Students in the intensive intervention significantly outperformed their peers receiving typical school services in word reading (effect size [ES] = 0.25) and word-reading fluency (ES = 0.19). Study groups performed similarly on measures of reading fluency and comprehension. Ultimately, students with severe reading difficulties accelerated their word reading and word-reading efficiency achievement, but the acceleration was not enough to also accelerate their reading fluency or reading comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aims of this study were twofold: (a) to describe average change in the written narrative performance of second grade students from the fall and spring of the school year and (b) examine patterns of individual growth to test for Matthew effects. Participants included 299 children in second grade. Microstructural measures were derived from students' written narratives including: number of different words (NDW), total number of words (TNW), and accuracy of spelling and grammar. Significant increases in NDW, TNW, and spelling accuracy were evidenced from fall to spring. Students averaged 55 total words in the fall and averaged 69 words in the spring, with a statistically significant increase of 14 words t(299) = 8.4, p <.0001). The variance in TNW from fall to spring increased from Var = 791 to Var = 1005, which was a significant increase and the correlation of initial Fall TNW and growth in TNW was also significant (r = 0.39). Additionally, results from a two-level hierarchical linear model with students nested within teachers indicated that initial level of TNW predicted the change in TNW from fall to spring, with higher levels of initial TNW being related to larger gains in TNW. Significant predictors of Matthew effects included teacher or classroom and free/reduced lunch eligibility. Written personal narrative measures are sensitive to developmental change across a school year. Evidence of Matthew effects in lexical productivity suggests additional support may be warranted to ameliorate gaps in writing achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students with disabilities who display severe reading difficulties may require intensive interventions in order to make progress. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of a multicomponent reading intervention implemented at two different intensities, in two separate randomized control trials, for a subset of fourth‐grade students who displayed severe reading difficulties, and who had or were at risk for disabilities. We use multilevel models to examine the effect of a standard, less intensive implementation in Study 1, and of a more intensive implementation in Study 2, relative to typical school services. Analyses revealed no significant effects of treatment for the standard, less intensive implementation in Study 1. Significant effects for word reading and word reading fluency outcomes for students assigned to receive the intensive implementation were noted in Study 2. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the predictive validity and classification accuracy of individual- and group-administered screening measures relative to student performance on a year-end state reading assessment in two states. A sample of 321 students was assessed in the areas of word-level and text fluency, as well as reading comprehension in the fall of fourth grade. For individual measures, a group-administered reading comprehension test exhibited the highest classification accuracy (74%–80%) for both outcomes though no screener demonstrated optimal sensitivity and specificity levels. Using a multivariate approach, logistic regression results revealed minimal to no increase in classification accuracy over the single comprehension measure. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses determined local cut scores to maintain sensitivity constant at.90, which resulted in a large number of false positives. The implications and limitations of these findings for screening at the upper elementary level are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined and quantified the maintenance of reading comprehension effects from a 4th-grade intervention for students with reading difficulties across the summer into the fall of 5th grade. We randomly assigned 4th-grade students with reading comprehension difficulties to a multicomponent reading intervention (Passport) or to typical school services. Students in the treatment received daily intervention in small groups of 4–7 students across the 4th-grade school year. We followed students (n = 269) into their 5th-grade year. Groups were equivalent at baseline, and the treatment group significantly outperformed the comparison group at posttest. Students in the treatment continued to grow in reading comprehension over the summer at a rate of approximately 25% of the original growth, which suggests partially fleeting effects of the intervention. Treatment students maintained the higher levels of reading comprehension from the end of the 4th-grade intervention to the beginning of 5th grade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical studies investigating supplemental reading interventions for students with or at risk for reading disabilities in the early elementary grades have demonstrated a range of effect sizes. Identifying the findings from high-quality research can provide greater certainty of findings related to the effectiveness of supplemental reading interventions. This meta-analysis investigated how four variables of study quality (study design, statistical treatment, Type I error, and fidelity of implementation) were related to effect sizes from standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language and comprehension. The results from 88 studies indicated that year of publication was a significant predictor of effect sizes for both standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language and comprehension, with more recent studies demonstrating smaller effect sizes. Results also demonstrated that with the exception of research design predicting effect sizes on foundational reading skills measures, study quality was not related to the effects of supplemental reading interventions. Implications for research and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the efficacy of a content acquisition and reading comprehension intervention implemented in eighth-grade social studies classrooms. Using a within-teacher randomized control design, 18 eighth-grade teachers' social studies classes were randomly assigned to a treatment or comparison condition. Teachers taught all their classes (treatment and comparison) using the same content; however, in the treatment classes, teachers used instructional practices that included comprehension canopy, essential words, knowledge acquisition, and team-based learning. Students with reading comprehension difficulties in the treatment classes (n = 359) outperformed students with reading comprehension difficulties in the comparison classes (n = 331) on measures of content knowledge acquisition and content reading comprehension but not general reading comprehension. In addition, the proportion of students with reading comprehension difficulties in classes moderated outcomes for content knowledge acquisition and content reading comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students with disabilities are often included in general education social studies classes, but these classes can differ in the achievement level of the overall class, including wide variation in content-related background knowledge, reading achievement, or both. The purpose of this study was to examine how background knowledge and reading achievement moderate the effects of a previously validated intervention, Promoting Adolescents' Comprehension of Text (PACT). We examined data from a prior randomized control trial of 1,487 eighth-grade students in 85 classes that were randomly assigned at the class level to receive either PACT instructional practices or typical instructional practices using the same social studies content. Results of the current study reveal no moderating effect at the class level of either initial background knowledge or reading achievement on student content knowledge acquisition or content reading comprehension outcomes. Classes with varying levels of background knowledge and reading achievement performed similarly in PACT instruction, with benefits of the PACT instruction found on content knowledge acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many students at risk for or identified with reading disabilities need intensive reading interventions. This meta-analysis provides an update to the Wanzek and Vaughn synthesis on intensive early reading interventions. Effects from 25 reading intervention studies are analyzed to examine the overall effect of intensive early reading interventions as well as relationships between intervention and student characteristics related to outcomes. The weighted mean effect size (ES) estimate (ES = 0.39), with a mean effect size adjusted for publication bias (ES = 0.28), both significantly different from zero, suggested intensive early reading interventions resulted in positive outcomes for early struggling readers in kindergarten through third grades. There was no statistically significant or meaningful heterogeneity in the study-wise effect sizes. Exploratory examination of time in intervention, instructional group size, initial reading achievement, and date of publication are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Treatment fidelity data (descriptive and statistical) are critical to interpreting and generalizing outcomes of intervention research. Despite recommendations for treatment fidelity reporting from funding agencies and researchers, past syntheses have found treatment fidelity is frequently unreported (e.g., Swanson, The Journal of Special Education, 47, 3-13, 2011) in educational interventions and fidelity data are seldom used to analyze its relation to student outcomes (O’Donnell, Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 33-84, 2008). The purpose of this synthesis was to examine how treatment fidelity is supported, measured, and reported in reading intervention studies conducted with students at risk or with reading difficulties in grades K-3 from 1995 through 2015. All studies (k = 175) were coded to extract and classify information related to (a) the characteristics of the intervention study (e.g., publication year, research design); (b) treatment implementer training and support; (c) treatment fidelity data collection procedures, dimensions (i.e., adherence, quality, receipt, dosage, and differentiation), and levels of treatment fidelity data; and (d) the use of fidelity scores in the analysis of treatment effects. Results indicated that less than half (47%) of the reading intervention studies synthesized reported treatment fidelity data (numeric or narrative). Exploratory analyses showed that several study features were associated with the prevalence of fidelity reporting. Studies reporting treatment fidelity largely measured treatment adherence, and scores were, on average, high. Other dimensions of treatment fidelity (e.g., treatment differentiation), and analyses relating fidelity data to outcomes, were consistently absent from the corpus of reading intervention studies reviewed. Recommendations for enhancing how treatment fidelity data in intervention studies are collected and reported are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word reading, reading comprehension, spelling, and written composition), using longitudinal data from students in Grades 3-6 in the US. Results revealed that word reading and spelling were best described as having linear growth trajectories whereas reading comprehension and written composition showed nonlinear growth trajectories with a quadratic function during the examined developmental period. Word reading and spelling were consistently strongly related (.73 ≤ rs ≤ .80) whereas reading comprehension and written composition were weakly related (.21 ≤ rs ≤ .37). Initial status and linear slope were negatively and moderately related for word reading (− .44) whereas they were strongly and positively related for spelling (.73). Initial status of word reading predicted initial status and growth rate of spelling; and growth rate of word reading predicted growth rate of spelling. In contrast, spelling did not predict word reading. When it comes to reading comprehension and writing, initial status of reading comprehension predicted initial status (.69), but not linear growth rate, of written comprehension. These results indicate that reading-writing relations are stronger at the lexical level than at the discourse level and may be a unidirectional one from reading to writing at least between Grades 3 and 6. Results are discussed in light of the interactive dynamic literacy model of reading-writing relations, and component skills of reading and writing development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This article summarizes findings from a two‐year randomized control trial, focusing on a subset of 194 fourth graders with reading comprehension scores at or below the 15th percentile. Students in the treatment condition received an average of 94 daily 30‐min sessions of small group intervention implemented with fidelity by well‐trained research staff. Standardized measures of word identification, vocabulary, and comprehension, and an oral reading fluency measure were administered pre‐ and post‐testing. Results indicated no statistically significant differences between students in the treatment or business‐as‐usual conditions; effect sizes for comprehension were small (0.14 and 0.19); a quantile regression, however, revealed slightly larger effect sizes for students at the 0.25 to 0.50 quantiles. The effect sizes for word identification, fluency, and vocabulary were less than 0.05. We discuss implications of the study, as well as limitations and directions for future research. We conclude with recommendations for intensifying interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss a component-based, developmental view of text writing fluency, which we tested using data from children in Grades 2 and 3. Text writing fluency was defined as efficiency and automaticity in writing connected texts, which acts as a mediator between text generation (oral language), transcription skills, and writing quality. We hypothesized that in the beginning phase, text writing fluency would be largely constrained by transcription skills (spelling and handwriting), while at a later phase, oral language would make an independent contribution to text writing fluency. Furthermore, we hypothesized that text writing fluency would have a stronger relationship with writing quality at a later phase than at an earlier phase. We operationalized text writing fluency using two curriculum-based measurement writing scores: percentage correct word sequences and correct minus incorrect word sequences. Results revealed that in Grade 2, only transcription skills were uniquely related to text writing fluency, whereas in Grade 3, oral language was also related to text writing fluency. Text writing fluency was weakly related to writing quality in Grade 2 but strongly related to writing quality in Grade 3, over and above oral language and transcription skills. In both grades, oral language and handwriting fluency were independently related to writing quality. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonmainstream American English, or dialect, among children may have important implications for reading research and practice. However, much of the research involving relations between dialect and literacy has analyzed dialect use in only one context and has omitted students with speech, language, and learning disabilities. Consequently, we examined dialect use in an oral narrative and two writing samples in relation to concurrent and longitudinal reading outcomes in a diverse sample of students, including those with diagnosed disabilities. Overall, most students used features of dialect in oral and written language. Dialect use was significantly and negatively predictive of reading outcomes the same year and 2 years later. Moderator analyses indicated a similar relationship between dialect use and reading for students with speech, language, and learning disabilities, suggesting that students with these disabilities who also use dialect may be at increased risk for reading difficulties. Implications for practice and future research are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An emerging body of research has evaluated the role of growth mindset in educational achievement, yet little work has focused on the unique role of mindset to standardized reading outcomes. Our study presents 4 key outcomes in a sample of 195 fourth-grade students. First, we evaluated the dimensionality of general and reading-specific mindset and found that a global factor of growth mindset (GGM) existed along with specific factors of general and reading mindset. Second, GGM and reading mindset strongly predicted word reading and reading comprehension. Third, GGM and reading mindset uniquely predicted reading comprehension after controlling for basic word reading skills. Fourth, GGM was more strongly associated with reading comprehension for those individuals with weaker reading comprehension skills, whereas reading mindset was more strongly associated with reading comprehension for those with stronger reading comprehension skills. Our findings suggest the potential importance of assessing general and reading-specific mindset linked to reading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the effects of transcription instruction for students in 1st grade. We selected students in the lowest 70% of the participating schools for the study. We randomly assigned these 81 students to (a) spelling instruction, (b) handwriting instruction, (c) combination spelling and handwriting instruction, or (d) no intervention. Interventionists provided intervention in small groups of 4 students, 25 min a day, 4 days a week for 8 weeks. Students in the spelling condition outperformed the control group on spelling measures, with moderate effect sizes noted for curriculum-based writing measures (e.g., correct word sequences;gs = 0.34–0.68). Students in the handwriting condition outperformed the control group on correct word sequences, with small to moderate effects on other handwriting and writing measures (gs = 0.31–0.71). Students in the combined condition outperformed the control group on correct word sequences, with a small effect on total words written (gs = 0.39–0.84). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present study examined the amount, type, and quality of Tier 1 and supplemental reading instruction provided to 4th-grade struggling readers and whether specific elements of instruction predicted growth in reading skills. In all, 110 students identified as having reading difficulty who were receiving school-based reading instruction in 22 classrooms located in 2 states/sites participated. We observed and coded reading instruction for instructional dimensions, including reading components, grouping, and quality. Reading comprehension and vocabulary were the most prevalent components of instruction, whereas limited time was allocated to word-level reading skills. We noted several significant differences in time allocated to overall instruction and components of instruction during Tier 1 between sites. Overall, there were few unique Tier 1 instructional predictors of student achievement at the end of the year. Students receiving supplemental reading instruction outperformed those students receiving only Tier 1 on measures of oral reading fluency. We discuss implications for instruction and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many raters and tasks are needed to reach a desirable level of .90 and .80 reliabilities for children in Grades 3 and 4. A total of 211 children (102 boys) were administered three tasks in narrative and expository genres, respectively, and their written compositions were evaluated in widely used evaluation methods for developing writers: holistic scoring, productivity, and curriculum-based writing scores. Results showed that 54 and 52% of variance in narrative and expository compositions were attributable to true individual differences in writing. Students' scores varied largely by tasks (30.44 and 28.61% of variance), but not by raters. To reach the reliability of .90, multiple tasks and raters were needed, and for the reliability of .80, a single rater and multiple tasks were needed. These findings offer important implications about reliably evaluating children's writing skills, given that writing is typically evaluated by a single task and a single rater in classrooms and even in some state accountability systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spelling is one of the most challenging areas for students with learning disabilities (LD), and improving spelling outcomes for these students is of high importance. In this synthesis, we examined the effects of spelling and reading interventions on spelling outcomes for students with LD in Grades K through 12. A systematic search of peer-reviewed literature published between 2004 and 2014 was conducted using electronic databases and hand searches of relevant journals. To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to meet the following criteria: (a) Participants were identified with LD and were in Grades K through 12, (b) designs were either treatment/comparison or single case, (c) a reading or spelling intervention was implemented, (d) at least one spelling outcome was measured, and (e) instruction was in English. Ten studies met criteria for inclusion in the synthesis, and effectiveness ranged from ineffective to highly effective. Findings demonstrated that spelling outcomes for taught words were improved for students with LD with the use of explicit instruction or self-correction strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine the efficacy of a content knowledge and reading comprehension treatment implemented by 8th-grade social studies teachers over the course of 1 school year. We randomly assigned 8th-grade students with reading difficulties to the intervention treatment condition (n = 45) or the business-as-usual comparison condition (n = 33). Students in the treatment condition scored statistically higher than students in the comparison condition on measures of knowledge acquisition (effect size [ES] = 0.35), content reading comprehension (ES = 0.59), and vocabulary recall (ES = 0.65). The small ES on standardized reading comprehension (ES = 0.10) favoring the treatment condition was not statistically significant. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We describe teacher fidelity (adherence to the components of the treatment as specified by the research team) based on a series of studies of a multicomponent intervention, Promoting Acceleration of Comprehension and Content Through Text (PACT), with middle and high school social studies teachers and their students. Findings reveal that even with highly specified materials and implementing practices that are aligned with effective reading comprehension and content instruction, teachers' fidelity was consistently low for some components and high for others. Teachers demonstrated consistently high implementation fidelity and quality for the instructional components of building background knowledge (comprehension canopy) and teaching key content vocabulary (essential words), whereas we recorded consistently lower fidelity and quality of implementation for the instructional components of critical reading and knowledge application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding differences in oral language abilities is vital, particularly for children from low-income homes and minority children who are at an increased risk for academic failure because of differences or deficits in language use or exposure before they enter school. The purpose of this study was to investigate oral language performance, including receptive and expressive vocabulary, grammar, and sentence imitation, among a diverse group of kindergarten students (n = 503). Using hierarchical linear modeling, we examined the contributions of student race (African American or non–African American), student socioeconomic status (SES), and school-wide SES to oral language performance. In separate analyses, we found significant absolute effects of both race and individual SES. However, when analyzed simultaneously, only race was a significant predictor for all measures. We also found that both identification as African American and school-wide SES were significant predictors of oral language performance. We discuss implications for practice and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Two primary purposes guided this quasi-experimental within-teacher study: (a) to examine changes from baseline through 2 years of professional development (Individualizing Student Instruction) in kindergarten teachers’ differentiation of Tier 1 literacy instruction; and (b) to examine changes in reading and vocabulary of 3 cohorts of the teachers’ students (n = 416). We observed teachers’ instruction and assessed students on standardized measures of vocabulary and word reading. Results suggested that teachers significantly increased their differentiation and students showed significantly greater word reading outcomes relative to baseline. We observed no change for vocabulary. The results have implications for supporting teacher effectiveness through technology-supported professional development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present study used a randomized control trial to examine the effects of a widely used multicomponent Tier 2-type intervention, Passport to Literacy, on the reading ability of 221 fourth graders who initially scored at or below the 30th percentile in reading comprehension. Intervention was provided by research staff to groups of 4–7 students for 30 min, 4 days a week throughout the school year (M= 90.45 lessons). Tier 1 instruction was observed to be of generally high quality and intervention fidelity was strong. Findings revealed small, average effects (ES = .14–.28) in favor of intervention students on standardized measures of comprehension, but no effects on word reading or fluency measures. Exploratory analyses indicated that intervention effects may differ by students’ comprehension abilities. Implications for intervention implementation and directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This meta-analysis extends previous work on extensive Tier 3 type reading interventions (Wanzek and Vaughn School Psychology Review, 36, 541-561, 2007; Wanzek et al. Review of Educational Research, 83, 163-195, 2013) to Tier 2 type interventions by examining a non-overlapping set of studies addressing the effects of less extensive reading interventions for students with or at risk for reading difficulties in Grades K-3. We examined the overall effects of these interventions on students' foundational skills, language, and comprehension as well as the intervention features that may be associated with improved outcomes. We conducted four meta-analyses on 72 studies to examine effects on (1) standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES = 0.54), (2) not-standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES = 0.62), (3) standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES = 0.36), and (4) not-standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES = 1.02). There were no differences in effects related to intervention type, instructional group size, grade level, intervention implementer, or the number of intervention hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of Promoting Adolescent Comprehension Through Text (PACT), a content knowledge and comprehension treatment for English learner and non–English learner students with disabilities who were provided instruction in general education social studies classrooms. Eighth-grade students with disabilities in the treatment condition (n = 59) scored significantly higher than students with disabilities in the comparison condition (n = 89) on a measure of content knowledge (effect size = .51). Students with disabilities in both study groups scored similarly on measures of content reading comprehension and general reading comprehension. In addition, the effect of treatment did not differ between English learner and non–English learner students with disabilities. Overall, the findings support the use of the instructional practices for improving content acquisition in general education social studies classes for English learner and non–English learner students with disabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports vocabulary and reading comprehension instructional practices implemented in middle and high school social studies and language arts classrooms. It also describes text reading practices. We conducted 137 observations of 11 social studies and 9 language arts teachers over the course of 1 academic year. We observed instructional practices supportive of vocabulary and reading comprehension to differing degrees in social studies and language arts. The proportion of time spent reading text was roughly the same across the 2 subjects, with differences by text type, reading mode, and grade level within both subject areas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Theories of writing development posit several component skills as necessary to the writing process. This meta-analysis synthesizes the literature on the correlation between these proposed component skills and writing outcomes. Specifically, in this study, we examine the bivariate relationships between handwriting fluency, spelling, reading, and oral language and students’ quality of writing and writing production. Additionally, the extent to which such relationships are moderated by student grade level and type of learner is also investigated. The findings document that each of the component skills demonstrates a weak to moderate positive relationship to outcomes assessing writing quality (rs = .33−.49) and the amount students write (rs = .20−.48). Moderator analyses were generally not significant with the exception that the relationship between reading and writing production was significantly higher for students in the primary grades. The implications of these findings to current theories and future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research synthesis was conducted to understand the effectiveness of interventions designed to improve learning from informational text for students with learning disabilities in elementary school (K–5). The authors identified 18 studies through a comprehensive search. The interventions were evaluated to determine treatment effects and to understand implementation and methodological variables that influenced outcomes. Moderate to large effect sizes on researcher-developed measures for cognitive strategy interventions were reported. Interventions that utilized graphic organizers as study guides to support social studies learning were also associated with improved outcomes. The findings are considered within the context of limited implementation of standardized measures. The authors extend findings from previous research by reporting a paucity of interventions to enhance higher-level cognitive and comprehension skills. The majority of reviewed studies targeted fact acquisition and main idea identification, and overall encouraging findings were noted for these skills. Implications for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today’s social studies teachers and students face an unprecedented time of standards and accountability. Students bring influences that may interact with the instructional context teachers provide for learning. Eighth- and 11th-grade U.S. history students (n = 512) from 11 schools (23 teachers), diverse in location, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, provided their perceptions of the instructional context. Student responses provided generally positive perceptions of class expectations, teacher support, and student effort in learning. Student reports of interest and motivation in learning U.S. history were lower. Students perceived a variety of instruction occurring in their classes with the most frequently perceived activities representing traditional instruction. There were a few grade-level differences in student responses related to some aspects of expectations, instruction, and supports for learning. Differences in perceptions among students of varying reading achievement were noted on some items particularly related to expectations and supports for learning. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose: The current meta-analysis examines recent empirical research studies that have investigated relations among dialect use and the development and achievement of reading, spelling, and writing skills. Method: Studies published between 1998 and 2014 were selected if they: (a) included participants who were in Grades K-6 and were typically developing native English speakers, (b) examined a concurrent quantitative relationship between dialect use and literacy, including reading, spelling, or writing measures, and (c) contained sufficient information to calculate effect size estimates. Results: Upon the removal of one study that was found to be an outlier, the full sample included 19 studies consisting of 1,947 participants, of which the majority (70%) were African American. The results showed a negative and moderate relationship between dialect use and overall literacy performance (M effect size = -0.33) and for dialect and reading (M effect size = -0.32). For spelling and writing, the relationship was negative and small (M effect size = -0.22). Moderator analyses revealed that socioeconomic status and grade level were not significant predictors for relations among dialect use and literacy skills. Conclusions: Implications for practice and future research, including analyzing dialect use in a variety of contexts and examining these relations to literacy outcomes, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors examined the effects of team-based learning (TBL) implemented in Grade 8 social studies classes on student content acquisition. Twenty-four classes were randomly assigned to treatment or comparison blocking on teacher. In the treatment classes teachers integrated TBL practices in the content instruction. The authors examined teacher instruction in the treatment and comparison classes during implementation. Results indicated TBL was implemented only in treatment classes and teachers demonstrated a novice level of implementation. The authors then examined the effects of the treatment implementation on measures of content acquisition. Significant differences in favor of the treatment condition were noted in the number of accurate content ideas produced in a written essay (effect size = .31). A small effect (.16) was also observed in the number of supporting details students provided in the essay but was not statistically significant. There was no benefit of the treatment on a multiple-choice test of content knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study aimed to determine the efficacy of a content knowledge and reading comprehension treatment implemented by eighth-grade general education social studies teachers among students with disabilities included in the classes. Data on students with disabilities across 2 years of study were combined for the analysis presented here. Students in the treatment conditions (n = 72) scored statistically higher than students in the comparison conditions (n = 58) on knowledge acquisition (effect size [ES] = .26) and content reading comprehension (ES = .34) but not standardized reading comprehension. Findings are interpreted as demonstrating support for the treatment in improving both knowledge acquisition and reading comprehension within content area instruction among students with disabilities served in the general education social studies classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of Promoting Acceleration of Comprehension and Content Through Text intervention implemented with 11th-grade students enrolled in U.S. History classes. Using a within-teacher randomized design, the study was conducted in 41 classes (23 treatment classes) with 14 teachers providing the treatment. Students in the treatment condition performed significantly better than students in the typical instruction comparison condition on a measure of content acquisition at posttest (ES = 0.36), as well as 4 (ES =.22) and 12 (ES =.24) weeks following treatment. There were no differences between treatment and comparison groups on measures of social studies reading comprehension or more general reading comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]