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Defining Filipinoness has been problematic throughout history. Previous studies have focused on the persistent impact of the colonial experience on Filipinos (Bernad, 1971; Constantino, 1977; Enriquez, 1992; Yacat, 2005). Some scholars have framed their understanding vis-a-vis the search for a national consciousness resulting in a unif ied Filipino identity (Anderson, 1983; Constantino, 1969). But in the age of globalization, statehood and nationhood have become questionable concepts (Adamson & Demetriou, 2007; Ahmad & Eijaz, 2011; Guéhenno, 1995; Omae, 1995). Who has the Filipino become amid a modern-day diaspora? I propose an analysis of history not as archival and disconnected from the present but as part of an ongoing story of identity formation. Recognition is given to kapwa, a view of self-and-other as one. This indigenous ontology offers a postmodern lens to understand the complexities of being Filipino through time and space. For contemporary Filipinos, identity formation may involve a continuing resistance against colonialism now set amid the diaspora in the digital age. This article further presents an alternative view of Filipinoness by arguing that diasporics remain Filipino despite physical estrangement from the Philippines. An essential point echoed from other scholars is how cultural identity should not be seen as singular and unchanging (Hall, 1990; Said, 1993/2012). Rather, Filipinoness may refer to evolving, varied and fluid Filipino identities. This evolution involves a past that folds into the present and impacts the future in locations around the world.

Introduction: In 2020, Asian countries accounted for almost two-third of the 377,000 new cases of Oral Cancer (OC) globally. High OC incidence poses a significant burden on the Asian population, but there is a lack of recent studies examining OC in Asia. Hence, an update on the epidemiology of OC in Asia is warranted. This review aims to consolidate epidemiological data on OC in Asia published between 2012 and 2021. Method: ology: A search was conducted on PubMed, Embase and Google Scholar for articles published between 2012 and 2021. There was no language restriction for articles. Articles reporting on the epidemiology of OC in Asia were included. The identified articles were critically appraised with the Joanna Brigs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal tool for Prevalent Studies. Results: 39 papers were identified that provided data across 27 countries in Asia. Most Asian countries reported rising incidence except among Hong Kong and Korean males, and Mumbai females. Besides Laos, Cambodia and certain regions in Thailand, all other regions in Asia showed male predilection. The mean age was in the late fifties. Tongue was the predominant site for most countries. Most OC presented as Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC). Growing OC trends among females and in the younger populations were found in some Asian countries. Conclusion: The lack of comprehensive epidemiologic data on OC in Asia despite its significant disease burden highlights the need to implement national-level registries to provide accessible data on OC in Asia, which will help to formulate effective prevention and treatment programs. An optimistic association between abstinence from tobacco and alcohol consumption and declining incidence rates bodes well for efforts directed at lifestyle modifications to reduce OC incidence.

Abstract Background Current data suggest that an efficacious human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine should elicit both adaptive humoral and cell mediated immune responses. Such a vaccine will also need to protect against infection from a range of heterologous viral variants. Here we have developed a simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) based model in cynomolgus macaques to investigate the breadth of protection conferred by HIV-1W61D recombinant gp120 vaccination against SHIVsbg and SHIVSF33 challenge, and to identify correlates of protection. Results High titres of anti-envelope antibodies were detected in all vaccinees. The antibodies reacted with both the homologous HIV-1W61D and heterologous HIV-1IIIB envelope rgp120 which has an identical sequence to the SHIVsbg challenge virus. Significant titres of virus neutralising antibodies were detected against SHIVW61D expressing an envelope homologous with the vaccine, but only limited cross neutralisation against SHIVsbg, SHIV-4 and SHIVSF33 was observed. Protection against SHIVsbg infection was observed in vaccinated animals but none was observed against SHIVSF33 challenge. Transfer of immune sera from vaccinated macaques to naive recipients did not confer protection against SHIVsbg challenge. In a follow-up study, T cell proliferative responses detected after immunisation with the same vaccine against a single peptide present in the second conserved region 2 of HIV-1 W61D and HIV-1 IIIB gp120, but not SF33 gp120. Conclusions Following extended vaccination with a HIV-1 rgp120 vaccine, protection was observed against heterologous virus challenge with SHIVsbg, but not SHIVSF33. Protection did not correlate with serological responses generated by vaccination, but might be associated with T cell proliferative responses against an epitope in the second constant region of HIV-1 gp120. Broader protection may be obtained with recombinant HIV-1 envelope based vaccines formulated with adjuvants that generate proliferative T cell responses in addition to broadly neutralising antibodies.

Abstract Background Vaccination with live attenuated SIV can protect against detectable infection with wild-type virus. We have investigated whether target cell depletion contributes to the protection observed. Following vaccination with live attenuated SIV the frequency of intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells, an early target of wild-type SIV infection and destruction, was determined at days 3, 7, 10, 21 and 125 post inoculation. Results In naive controls, modest frequencies of intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells were predominantly found within the LPL TTrM-1 and IEL TTrM-2 subsets. At day 3, LPL and IEL CD4+CCR5+ TEM cells were dramatically increased whilst less differentiated subsets were greatly reduced, consistent with activation-induced maturation. CCR5 expression remained high at day 7, although there was a shift in subset balance from CD4+CCR5+ TEM to less differentiated TTrM-2 cells. This increase in intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells preceded the peak of SIV RNA plasma loads measured at day 10. Greater than 65.9% depletion of intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells followed at day 10, but overall CD4+ T cell homeostasis was maintained by increased CD4+CCR5- T cells. At days 21 and 125, high numbers of intestinal CD4+CCR5- naive TN cells were detected concurrent with greatly increased CD4+CCR5+ LPL TTrM-2 and IEL TEM cells at day 125, yet SIV RNA plasma loads remained low. Conclusions This increase in intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells, following vaccination with live attenuated SIV, does not correlate with target cell depletion as a mechanism of protection. Instead, increased intestinal CD4+CCR5+ T cells may correlate with or contribute to the protection conferred by vaccination with live attenuated SIV.

Abstract Background Vaccination of macaques with live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) provides significant protection against the wild-type virus. The use of a live attenuated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as AIDS vaccine in humans is however considered unsafe because of the risk that the attenuated virus may accumulate genetic changes during persistence and evolve to a pathogenic variant. We earlier presented a conditionally live HIV-1 variant that replicates exclusively in the presence of doxycycline (dox). Replication of this vaccine strain can be limited to the time that is needed to provide full protection through transient dox administration. Since the effectiveness and safety of such a conditionally live virus vaccine should be tested in macaques, we constructed a similar dox-dependent SIV variant. The Tat-TAR transcription control mechanism in this virus was inactivated through mutation and functionally replaced by the dox-inducible Tet-On regulatory system. This SIV-rtTA variant replicated in a dox-dependent manner in T cell lines, but not as efficiently as the parental SIVmac239 strain. Since macaque studies will likely require an efficiently replicating variant, we set out to optimize SIV-rtTA through in vitro viral evolution. Results Upon long-term culturing of SIV-rtTA, additional nucleotide substitutions were observed in TAR that affect the structure of this RNA element but that do not restore Tat binding. We demonstrate that the bulge and loop mutations that we had introduced in the TAR element of SIV-rtTA to inactivate the Tat-TAR mechanism, shifted the equilibrium between two alternative conformations of TAR. The additional TAR mutations observed in the evolved variants partially or completely restored this equilibrium, which suggests that the balance between the two TAR conformations is important for efficient viral replication. Moreover, SIV-rtTA acquired mutations in the U3 promoter region. We demonstrate that these TAR and U3 changes improve viral replication in T-cell lines and macaque peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) but do not affect dox-control. Conclusion The dox-dependent SIV-rtTA variant was optimized by viral evolution, yielding variants that can be used to test the conditionally live virus vaccine approach and as a tool in SIV biology studies and vaccine research.