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The design of the bone scaffolds changes and develops with the developing technology and production methods. Degenerative diseases which are one of the design needs like osteoporosis, result in bone pathologies such as, degeneration and loss of bone tissue, adversely affecting quality of life and living standards. Therefore, the development of three-dimensional bioactive bone tissue scaffolds for bone regeneration come into prominence in tissue engineering. Polymers and bioactive ceramics are used as biomaterials designed for bone tissue engineering applications that bone tissue structure can be successfully imitated. Bone tissue scaffolds produced with hydroxyapatite (HA) and bioactive glasses have a clinical potential for bone regeneration due to their high biocompatibility and binding properties to bone tissue. However, the mechanical properties of HA and bioactive glass bone tissue scaffolds, which are designed to be porous like bone tissue, are not particularly suitable for load bearing applications. HA based composites are produced by adding secondary phases such as ceramic, metal, polymer, and glass to improve the mechanical properties. A variety of manufacturing methods such as stereolithography, powder layered fusion material extrusion, binder jetting and three-dimensional (3D) printing are applied to fabricate bone tissue scaffolds according to the printing principles and selection of materials. Conventional methods offer limited control over pore size, geometry, and interdependence for this production. However, 3D printing technologies have evolved, progress has been recorded in the ability to control bone micro-architecture.

The effect of particle size and phosphorous content in biomineralization media on in vitro bioactivity of monticellite based ceramic powders was investigated. Monticellite based ceramic powder was synthesized at 800 °C for 4 h using boron derivative waste. Monticellite based ceramic powder, comprising monticellite, akermanite, diopside, calcium magnesium borate and zeolite LTA crystalline phases, was crushed and then ball-milled for optimized time to obtain lowest average particle size and the narrowest particle size distribution. In vitro bioactivity of both coarse (d10: 0.5 μm, d50: 3.0 μm, d90: 42 μm) and fine (d10: 0.5 μm, d50: 1.4 μm, d90: 4.8 μm) wafers was determined by incubation in Lactated Ringer's Solution and Human Blood Plasma for 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days at 36.5 ± 0.5 °C. The obtained results exhibited that calcite (CaCO3) layer after immersion in Lactated Ringer's Solution and bone-like apatite layer after immersion in Human Blood Plasma were formed on the surface of coarse and fine wafers. The presence of phosphorus in biomineralization media is necessary for apatite formation. The increment of surface roughness favors homogeneous nucleation, and fasten nucleation and growth kinetics of precipitation. As a result, the bioactive characteristic of monticellite based ceramic powder could be governed by the particle size. Resumen: Se investigó el efecto del tamaño de partícula y el contenido de fósforo en los medios de biomineralización sobre la bioactividad in vitro de polvos cerámicos a base de monticellita. El polvo cerámico a base de monticellita se sintetizó a 800 °C durante 4 h utilizando residuos de derivados de boro. El polvo cerámico a base de monticellita, que comprende monticellita, akermanita, diópsido, borato de calcio y magnesio y fases cristalinas de zeolita LTA se trituró, y luego se molió con bola durante un tiempo optimizado para obtener el tamaño de partícula promedio más bajo y la distribución de tamaño de partícula más estrecha. La bioactividad in vitro de obleas gruesas (d10: 0.5 μm, d50: 3.0 μm, d90: 42 μm) y finas (d10: 0.5 μm, d50: 1.4 μm, d90: 4.8 μm) se determinó mediante incubación en solución de Ringer lactato y plasma sanguíneo humano durante 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21 y 28 días a 36,5 ± 0,5 °C. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que la capa de calcita (CaCO3) después de la inmersión en la solución de Ringer lactato y la capa de apatita similar a un hueso después de la inmersión en plasma sanguíneo humano se formaron en la superficie de obleas gruesas y finas. La presencia de fósforo en los medios de biomineralización es necesaria para la formación de apatita. El incremento de la rugosidad de la superficie favorece la nucleación homogénea y fija la cinética de nucleación y crecimiento de la precipitación. Como resultado, la característica bioactiva del polvo cerámico a base de monticellita podría estar gobernada por el tamaño de partícula.