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Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a severe and often fatal systemic malignancy. Malignant cells are capable of escaping host immune surveillance by inactivating cytotoxic lymphoid cells. In this work we discovered a fundamental molecular pathway, which includes ligand-dependent activation of ectopically expressed latrophilin 1 and possibly other G-protein coupled receptors leading to increased translation and exocytosis of the immune receptor Tim-3 and its ligand galectin-9. This occurs in a protein kinase C and mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin)-dependent manner. Tim-3 participates in galectin-9 secretion and is also released in a free soluble form. Galectin-9 impairs the anti-cancer activity of cytotoxic lymphoid cells including natural killer (NK) cells. Soluble Tim-3 prevents secretion of interleukin-2 (IL-2) required for the activation of cytotoxic lymphoid cells. These results were validated in ex vivo experiments using primary samples from AML patients. This pathway provides reliable targets for both highly specific diagnosis and immune therapy of AML.

Human cancer cells operate a variety of effective molecular and signaling mechanisms which allow them to escape host immune surveillance and thus progress the disease. We have recently reported that the immune receptor Tim-3 and its natural ligand galectin-9 are involved in the immune escape of human acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. These cells use the neuronal receptor latrophilin 1 (LPHN1) and its ligand fibronectin leucine rich transmembrane protein 3 (FLRT3, and possibly other ligands) to trigger the pathway. We hypothesized that the Tim-3-galectin-9 pathway may be involved in the immune escape of cancer cells of different origins. We found that studied breast tumors expressed significantly higher levels of both galectin-9 and Tim-3 compared to healthy breast tissues of the same patients and that these proteins were co-localized. Increased levels of LPHN2 and expressions of LPHN3 as well as FLRT3 were also detected in breast tumor cells. Activation of this pathway facilitated the translocation of galectin-9 onto the tumor cell surface, however no secretion of galectin-9 by tumor cells was observed. Surface-based galectin-9 was able to protect breast carcinoma cells against cytotoxic T cell-induced death. Furthermore, we found that cell lines from brain, colorectal, kidney, blood/mast cell, liver, prostate, lung, and skin cancers expressed detectable amounts of both Tim-3 and galectin-9 proteins. The majority of cell lines expressed one of the LPHN isoforms and FLRT3. We conclude that the Tim-3-galectin-9 pathway is operated by a wide range of human cancer cells and is possibly involved in prevention of anti-tumor immunity.

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a non-histone protein localised in the cell nucleus, where it interacts with DNA and promotes nuclear transcription events. HMGB1 levels are elevated during acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) progression followed by participation of this protein in triggering signalling events in target cells as a pro-inflammatory stimulus. This mechanism was hypothesised to be employed as a survival pathway by malignant blood cells and our aims were therefore to test this hypothesis experimentally. Here we report that HMGB1 triggers the release of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) by primary human AML cells. TNF-α induces interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) production by healthy leukocytes, leading to IL-1β-induced secretion of stem cell factor (SCF) by competent cells (for example endothelial cells). These results were verified in mouse bone marrow and primary human AML blood plasma samples. In addition, HMGB1 was found to induce secretion of angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and this process was dependent on the immune receptor Tim-3. We therefore conclude that HMGB1 is critical for AML progression as a ligand of Tim-3 and other immune receptors thus supporting survival/proliferation of AML cells and possibly the process of angiogenesis.

The feeling of hunger or satiety results from integration of the sensory nervous system with other physiological and metabolic cues. This regulates food intake, maintains homeostasis and prevents disease. In C. elegans, chemosensory neurons sense food and relay information to the rest of the animal via hormones to control food-related behaviour and physiology. Here we identify a new component of this system, SKN-1B which acts as a central food-responsive node, ultimately controlling satiety and metabolic homeostasis. SKN-1B, an ortholog of mammalian NF-E2 related transcription factors (Nrfs), has previously been implicated with metabolism, respiration and the increased lifespan incurred by dietary restriction. Here we show that SKN-1B acts in two hypothalamus-like ASI neurons to sense food, communicate nutritional status to the organism, and control satiety and exploratory behaviours. This is achieved by SKN-1B modulating endocrine signalling pathways (IIS and TGF-β), and by promoting a robust mitochondrial network. Our data suggest a food-sensing and satiety role for mammalian Nrf proteins.