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The oral route is the most common and practical means of drug administration, particularly from a patient’s perspective. However, the pharmacokinetic profile of oral drugs depends on the rate of drug absorption through the intestinal wall before entering the systemic circulation. However, the enteric epithelium represents one of the major limiting steps for drug absorption, due to the presence of efflux transporters on the intestinal membrane, mucous layer, enzymatic degradation, and the existence of tight junctions along the intestinal linings. These challenges are more noticeable for hydrophilic drugs, high molecular weight drugs, and drugs that are substrates of the efflux transporters. Another challenge faced by oral drug delivery is the presence of first-pass hepatic metabolism that can result in reduced drug bioavailability. Over the years, a wide range of compounds have been investigated for their permeation-enhancing effect in order to circumvent these challenges. There is also a growing interest in developing nanocarrier-based formulation strategies to enhance the drug absorption. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview of the challenges faced by oral drug delivery and selected strategies to enhance the oral drug absorption, including the application of absorption enhancers and nanocarrier-based formulations based on in vitro, in vivo, and in situ studies.

Prestasi organisasi bergantung sepenuhnya kepada prestasi kerja yang ditonjolkan oleh pekerja. Kegagalan organisasi untuk mengekalkan prestasi kerja yang baik membawa kepada masalah isu kadar pusing ganti pekerja yang tinggi yang seterusnya menjejaskan produktiviti syarikat dan ekonomi negara. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi prestasi kerja dalam kalangan penjawat awam dan swasta di kawasan sekitar Lembah Klang. Data primer diperoleh melalui soal selidik dengan sejumlah 139 responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini. Analisis faktor digunakan untuk menganalisis data yang sekadar diperoleh. Hasil kajian mendapati pekerja berpendapat bahawa ketiga-tiga faktor, iaitu motivasi, persekitaran tempat kerja serta latihan dan pembangunan mempengaruhi prestasi kerja. Pihak organisasi perlu mengutamakan keperluan motivasi intrinsik kepada pekerja dan menetapkan matlamat latihan yang dijalankan dengan jelas untuk meningkatkan prestasi kerja.