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Influenced by Hegel, modern Chinese philosophers (e.g., Mou Zong-San, Lao Sze-Kwang, etc.) and Japanese philosophers (e.g., Nishida Kitaro) were inclined to narrate Chinese or Japanese culture in terms of the Hegelian concept of ‘spirit’. Nevertheless, the Hegelian philosophy of culture assumes the existence of an unchangeable cultural spirit and was therefore criticised by Watsuji Tetsuro. Watsuji denies the existence of an unchangeable cultural spirit and argues that cultures arise from the aidagara (interactions) between Ningen (human society) and Fudo (nature). Yet Watsuji’s narration of culture overemphasised the aidagara between Ningen and Fudo but disregarded that culture may also arise from the aidagara among cultures. Therefore, by reinterpreting Watsuji’s concept of aidagara, this paper proposes the concept of Bungen to explain the formation of cultures in terms of intercultural interactions and therefore highlight the diversity of East Asian cultures.

Migration and language are closely interrelated fields that have not been sufficiently investigated. In particular, the state of speechlessness caused by migration has so far received little philosophical attention. Hence, this article explores speechlessness due to migration based on a dialectical human existence (Dasein). The condition of loss of language is philosophically significant because it shows who we are and who we can become through migration. It also unveils the individual and his or her development, as well as the condition of the receiving societies. The loss of language is the seismograph of human existence.