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BackgroundEvidence-based clinical intake tools (EBCITs) are structured assessment tools used to gather information about patients and help health care providers make informed decisions. The growing demand for personalized medicine, along with the big data revolution, has rendered EBCITs a promising solution. EBCITs have the potential to provide comprehensive and individualized assessments of symptoms, enabling accurate diagnosis, while contributing to the grounding of medical care. ObjectiveThis work aims to examine whether EBCITs cover data concerning disorders and symptoms to a similar extent as physicians, and thus can reliably address medical conditions in clinical settings. We also explore the potential of EBCITs to discover and ground the real prevalence of symptoms in different disorders thereby expanding medical knowledge and further supporting medical diagnoses made by physicians. MethodsBetween August 1, 2022, and January 15, 2023, patients who used the services of a digital health care (DH) provider in the United States were first assessed by the Kahun EBCIT. Kahun platform gathered and analyzed the information from the sessions. This study estimated the prevalence of patients’ symptoms in medical disorders using 2 data sets. The first data set analyzed symptom prevalence, as determined by Kahun’s knowledge engine. The second data set analyzed symptom prevalence, relying solely on data from the DH patients gathered by Kahun. The variance difference between these 2 prevalence data sets helped us assess Kahun’s ability to incorporate new data while integrating existing knowledge. To analyze the comprehensiveness of Kahun’s knowledge engine, we compared how well it covers weighted data for the symptoms and disorders found in the 2019 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NMCAS). To assess Kahun’s diagnosis accuracy, physicians independently diagnosed 250 of Kahun-DH’s sessions. Their diagnoses were compared with Kahun’s diagnoses. ResultsIn this study, 2550 patients used Kahun to complete a full assessment. Kahun proposed 108,523 suggestions related to symptoms during the intake process. At the end of the intake process, 6496 conditions were presented to the caregiver. Kahun covered 94% (526,157,569/562,150,572) of the weighted symptoms and 91% (1,582,637,476/173,4783,244) of the weighted disorders in the 2019 NMCAS. In 90% (224/250) of the sessions, both physicians and Kahun suggested at least one identical disorder, with a 72% (367/507) total accuracy rate. Kahun’s engine yielded 519 prevalences while the Kahun-DH cohort yielded 599; 156 prevalences were unique to the latter and 443 prevalences were shared by both data sets. ConclusionsECBITs, such as Kahun, encompass extensive amounts of knowledge and could serve as a reliable database for inferring medical insights and diagnoses. Using this credible database, the potential prevalence of symptoms in different disorders was discovered or grounded. This highlights the ability of ECBITs to refine the understanding of relationships between disorders and symptoms, which further supports physicians in medical diagnosis.

Abstract With about 1200 individuals murdered, the massacre of October 7th was one of the deadliest terrorist attacks in modern history. The mental health consequences of terrorist attacks have been documented. However, little is known of the impact of the potentially morally injurious experience (PMIE) of betrayal––in which individuals feel betrayed by leaders they once trusted––on levels of psychological burden in the aftermath of such an attack. In this national prospective cohort study, we examined to what extent the PMIE of betrayal exacerbates the risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression in the wake of the October 7th terrorist attack. A representative sample of 710 Israeli adults (362 female, 51.1%), Jews (557, 79.9%) and Arabs (153, 20.1%), aged 18–85 (M = 41.01, SD = 13.72) completed validated self-report questionnaires assessing PTSD, depression, and PMIE-betrayal at two timepoints: T1, in August 2023 (6–7 weeks before the attack) and T2, in November 2023 (5–6 weeks after the attack). In two hierarchical logistic regressions, we found that experience of PMIE-betrayal predicted diagnoses of both PTSD (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.26–2.92) and depression (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.37–3.01) at T2, beyond probable PTSD/depression at T1 and demographic and trauma-related variables. Moreover, in two repeated-measure analyses predicting PTSD/depression symptoms, we found significant interactions between PTSD/depression trajectories and PMIE-betrayal, meaning that the increase of PTSD/depression symptoms was significantly higher among participants experiencing betrayal in the context of the attack. Our study highlights the impact of PMIE of betrayal on the dramatic increase in psychopathology following the October 7th terror attack on Israel’s population. Clinicians treating individuals coping with PTSD and depression should attend to their patients’ possible exposure to betrayal following the attack. Moreover, national leaders and policymakers should take significant steps to repair the public’s betrayal experience.

ABSTRACTBackground: Combatants who are exposed to events that transgress deeply held moral beliefs might face lasting psychopathological outcomes, referred to as Moral Injury (MI). However, knowledge about pre-deployment factors that might moderate the negative consequences of MI is sparse. In this prospective study, we examined pre-enlistment characteristics and pre-deployment personality factors as possible moderators in the link between exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) and psychiatric symptomatology among Israeli active-duty combatants.Methods: A sample of 335 active-duty Israeli combatants participated in a 2.5-year prospective study with three waves of measurements (T1: 12 months before enlistment, T2: Six months following enlistment – pre-deployment, and T3: 18 months following enlistment – post-deployment). Participants’ characteristics were assessed via semi-structured interviews (T1) and validated self-report measures of personality factors: emotional regulation, impulsivity, and aggression (T2) and combat exposure, PMIEs, psychiatric symptomology and posttraumatic symptoms (T3) between 2019 and 2021.Results: Pre-enlistment psychiatric difficulties and negative life events contributed to higher exposure to PMIEs post-deployment. Higher levels of pre-deployment aggression and lower levels of emotional regulation and impulsivity moderated the association between betrayal, PMIEs and psychiatric symptomology post-deployment, above and beyond pre-enlistment psychiatric difficulties and life events.Conclusions: Our results highlight that pre-deployment emotional regulation, impulsivity and aggressiveness levels should be assessed, screened, and identified among combatants, as they all facilitate psychiatric symptomology (and PTSS) after combatants are exposed to PMIEs of betrayal. Such pre-assessment will enable the identification of at-risk combatants and might provide them with tailor-made preparation regarding moral and ethical situations that should be investigated in future research.

Suicide, one of the top causes of life lost in developed countries, is a major health problem, especially today, with the dramatic increase in mental health difficulties that was triggered during the Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). Opportunely, the recent emergence of internet-based crowdsourcing platforms (e.g., Amazon’s Mechanical Turk) may accelerate research on suicide prevention, however, this type of suicide research online involves a difficult ethical challenge: how to keep participants’ safe without compromising their privacy. To address this ethical challenge, a consortium of experts from multiple research institutions was assembled. The consortium discussed the advantages and disadvantages for participants involved in crowdsourcing-based studies that address suicide risk. This discussion resulted in a consensual step-by-step protocol for researchers who wish to conduct suicide research online, using the crowdsourcing platforms. This article provides a detailed description of the protocol and outlines key ethical arguments that led to its formulation. Unresolved issues are discussed as well and other researchers are encouraged to implement the proposed protocol and suggest further improvements. It is our hope that the current protocol will facilitate the research on large and diverse populations online and thus contribute to the global efforts to reduce suicide rates around the world.

Being a man has been recognized as a salient risk factor for suicide. Adopting uncompromised masculine perceptions (i.e., conforming to the masculine gender role norms) may restrict emotional expressiveness in men, which, in turn, may contribute to depression and somatization symptoms. We examined the moderating role of psychological flexibility and alexithymia in the relationship of masculinity with depression and somatization symptoms. A sample of 119 men completed measures of masculinity, alexithymia (difficulty identifying and delivering subjective feelings), psychological flexibility, depression, and somatization symptoms in a cross-sectional design study. Psychological flexibility levels moderated the relationship between masculinity and depression symptoms: Masculinity contributed as positively associated with depression symptoms when psychological flexibility was low, but no such association was found at moderate or high levels of psychological flexibility. As a cognitive factor promoting adaptive emotional regulation, psychological flexibility might reduce depression symptoms among inflexible masculine men. Clinical implications relate to diagnosing at-risk subgroups and their treatment.

Background: Suicide-loss survivors (SLSs) are recognised as an at-risk population for several psychiatric complications, including complicated grief (CG) and depression (SI). However, whereas shame is known as one of the characteristics of this population, knowledge about possible psychological processes which may moderate the contribution of shame levels to CG and depression in the aftermath of suicide loss is sparse. This study examines the role of self-disclosure – the inclination to share personal information with others – as a possible moderator of the associations of shame with CG and shame with depression over time. Method: Participants were 152 suicide-loss survivors, aged 18–70, who completed questionnaires tapping CG and depression at three time points (T1- index measurement, T2-two years after T1. and T3-four years after T1) and questionnaires tapping shame and SD at T3. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that shame significantly and positively contributed to CG at T3 and to depression at T3, beyond the CG/depression trajectories. Notably, two significant interactions were found: Self-disclosure moderated the contribution of shame to CG at T3 and to depression at T3. At lower self-disclosure levels, shame’s contribution to CG and depression was higher. Conclusion: The study’s findings highlight shame as a significant facilitator of CG and depression in the aftermath of suicide loss. Moreover, the role of interpersonal interaction on SLSs’ distress levels and grieving process was underscored, as this interaction may serve as a buffer against the deleterious sequelae of the suicide of a loved one.

Introduction: Disaffiliating from an ultra-Orthodox society is complex and challenging. The process includes dealing with culture shock, traumatic experiences, education gaps, and disconnection from familiar surroundings. Thus, ex-ultra-Orthodox individuals (ex-ULTOIs) may face loneliness, lack of belongingness, and loss of meaning, which may relate to high psychological distress such as depression and suicide ideation. In the present study, we sought to shed light on the distress of ex-ULTOIs in Israel and to understand the disaffiliation-related characteristics that may relate to their distress levels. Method: The sample comprised 755 participants, aged 19–54, who left their ultra-Orthodox Jewish lifestyle and communities. Participants completed self-report questionnaires tapping depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, suicide ideation and behaviour, as well as demographics and disaffiliation-related characteristics. Results: Nearly half of the sample (N = 332, 45.9%) reported symptom intensity meeting the current criteria for major depressive disorder. Moreover, 46.7% reported symptoms meeting PTSD criteria, and 34.5% reported having suicidal ideations in the past year. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the intensity of past negative life events, the nature of motives for disaffiliation, and the longer duration of the disaffiliation process contributed to the severity of distress. Conclusions: The study's findings reveal that ex-ULTOIs suffer from high mental pain levels, particularly depression, PTSD, and suicidal risk. Importantly, experiencing disaffiliation as traumatic and longer durations of the process may facilitate greater mental pain and distress symptoms. These findings emphasize that ex-ULTOIs must be continually assessed, especially when their disaffiliation processes are experienced as traumatic.

ABSTRACTBackground: Government actions and participating in protracted-duration protests against it affect protesters' mental health, leading to high distress levels, such as posttraumatic and depressive symptoms. Aside from exposure to violence and other issues, protest participation can pose unique challenges to the protesters as they may be exposed to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs), such as the betrayal of leaders they once trusted. This study's primary objective was to examine the extent of psychological difficulties among civilians participating in long-duration protests in Israel. More specifically, the study aimed to understand the contribution of exposure to protest-related PMIEs to psychological difficulties such as posttraumatic and depressive symptoms.Method: Participants comprised 4036 Israelis who were actively involved in the unfolding civil protest movement against the government-led judicial overhaul between January 2023 and August 2023. The protesters completed validated self-report questionnaires that included measures of PMIE exposure, PTSD and depressive symptoms.Results: About half (44.3%) of the sample met the criteria for self-report diagnosis of major depression and 10.6% for PTSD. Most of the protesters indicated their exposure to at least one moral injury event, with 63.9% reporting exposure to PMIE-Betrayal. Protesters exposed to PMIEs reported significantly higher levels of both PTSD and depression than non-PMIE-exposed protesters. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that, beyond demographics and protest-related characteristics such as exposure to violence, PMIE dimensions significantly contributed to both PTSD and depression levels.Conclusions: The findings highlight the mental burden of protesters during the civil protests against the judicial overhaul in Israel. More central to the present research, the findings highlight the critical contribution of PMIEs exposure to this burden. Clinicians treating protesters coping with depression and PTSD following the civil actions should attend to their exposure to PMIEs, which may relate to the deleterious psychological effects among protesters.

Suicide prevention is a priority globally. Community nurses are on the frontline of healthcare, and thus well placed to identify those at risk of suicide and act to prevent it. However, they are often ill-equipped to do so. This study examines whether depression management training for nurses may also help them manage suicide-risk patients. Method: This quasi-experimental study used a questionnaire that included a randomly assigned textual case vignette, measures related to patient descriptions portrayed in the vignette, and demographic and clinical/training information. The participants were 139 Israeli nurses who were mostly Jewish, Israeli-born, and married women working as community nurses. Almost half had completed depression management training (DMT) in their routine work. Results: Nurses who completed depression management training were more likely than non-trainees to query the patient regarding mental status and suicide plans and were more likely to refer them to appropriate further treatment. The graduate nurses also reported higher self-competence and more positive attitudes regarding their ability to assess depression and suicide risk than nurses who had not received depression management training. Discussion: The results highlight the importance of depression management training, as suicide assessment and referral are among the major steps to suicide prevention.

Potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) entail acts of commission (e.g., cruelty, proscribed or prescribed violence) or omission (e.g., high stakes failure to protect others) and bearing witness (e.g., to grave inhumanity, to the gruesome aftermath of violence), or being the victim of others' acts of commission (e.g., high stakes trust violations) or omission (e.g., being the victim of grave individual or systemic failures to protect) that transgress deeply held beliefs and expectations about right and wrong. Although there is a proliferation of interest in moral injury (the outcome associated with exposure to PMIEs), there has been no operational definition of the putative syndrome and no standard assessment scheme or measure, which has hampered research and care in this area. We describe an international effort to define the syndrome of moral injury and develop and validate the Moral Injury Outcome Scale (MIOS) in three stages. To ensure content validity, in Stage I, we conducted interviews with service members, Veterans, and clinicians/Chaplains in each country, inquiring about the lasting impact of PMIEs. Qualitative analysis yielded six operational definitions of domains of impact of PMIEs and components within domains that establish the parameters of the moral injury syndrome. From the domain definitions, we derived an initial pool of scale items. Stage II entailed scale refinement using factor analytic methods, cross-national invariance testing, and internal consistency reliability analyses of an initial 34-item MIOS. A 14-item MIOS was invariant and reliable across countries and had two factors: Shame-Related (SR) and Trust-Violation-Related (TVR) Outcomes. In Stage III, MIOS total and subscale scores had strong convergent validity, and PMIE-endorsers had substantially higher MIOS scores vs. non-endorsers. We discuss and contextualize the results and describe research that is needed to substantiate these inaugural findings to further explore the validity of the MIOS and moral injury, in particular to examine discriminant and incremental validity.

ObjectivesAlthough Non-suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) has received more attention in recent years, most of these studies focused on samples from North American and European countries; consequently, little is known about its patterns and frequency in other cultures as well as its relation to sleep problems and internet addiction. As one of the few studies that aim to fill this gap, the current study examined the prevalence, characteristics, and types of NSSI behaviors among adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups.MethodsA sample of 642 adolescents, aged 12–18 years, were randomly recruited from different middle and high schools in Israel, employing a snowball sampling technique. The sample included the following: 50% Jews and 34.7% Muslims born in Israel, 9.7% immigrants from the former Soviet Union (FSU), and 4.4% immigrants from Ethiopia. The participants completed self-report questionnaires that assessed their NSSI, sleep problems, internet addictions, and depressive symptoms.ResultsAlmost one-third of the sample had engaged in NSSI, while 6% frequently injured themselves. More than half of the FSU immigrants and one-third of the Muslim participants indicated that they engaged in NSSI. These two population groups also exhibited severe depressive symptoms, sleep problems, and internet addictions. The most parsimonious correlations with NSSI included being male, an immigrant/Muslim minority who exhibited severe depressive symptoms and internet addictions.ConclusionsThese results emphasize the need for routine NSSI assessments to prevent long-term sequelae, including any forms of suicidal thoughts and behaviors and adult borderline personality disorder (BPD). Primary preventive programs that include adaptive coping skills may eliminate the social contagion effect of NSSI.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic poses unique challenges to health and social care workers (HSCWs) who face morally challenging and life-threatening decisions. Following exposure to events that transgress moral beliefs and expectations, HSCWs might experience psychological, social, and spiritual problems referred to as Moral Injury (MI). Objective: The objectives of this study were to examine patterns of exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) among HSCWs and their associations with MI, mental health outcomes and psychological correlates. Method: A sample of 296 Israeli HSCWs volunteered to complete a cross-sectional electronic survey with validated self-report questionnaires in February and March 2021. Latent Class Analysis (LCA) was used to identify classes characterized by unique patterns of exposure to PMIEs. Socio-demographic, work and COVID-related variables were used to predict patterns of exposure to PMIEs, and differences in mental-health outcomes and psychological correlates between classes were assessed. Results: Three subgroups were identified: ‘high exposure’ (19.5%), ‘betrayal-only’ (31.3%), and ‘minimal exposure’ (49.4%). Perceived stress increases the odds for inclusion in the ‘high exposure’ and ‘betrayal-only’ classes. Participants in both the High Exposure class and the betrayal-only classes reported higher levels of depressive, anxiety, posttraumatic and more moral injury symptoms as compared to the ‘minimal exposure’ class. Importantly, both ‘high exposure’ and ‘betrayal-only’ classes reported lower levels of self-compassion and higher levels of self-criticism, relative to those in the ‘minimal exposure’ class. Conclusions: The study’s findings offer an overview of the complex associations between patterns of exposure to PMIEs and associated predictors and outcomes. Clinicians treating HSCWs coping with COVID-19 related stress should be aware of the contribution of exposure to PMIEs to HSCWs’ distress and to the unique constellation of high self-criticism and low self-compassion among HSCWs with exposure to PMIEs.

Background: Moral Injury (MI) is one of the adverse consequences of combat. Following exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs)––events perceived as violations of deep moral beliefs by oneself or trusted individuals––a significant minority of veterans could develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Objective: The current study represents the first attempt to apply a network analysis model to examine an exploratory empirical conceptualization of a network of PMIEs during military service, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters, depression, and combat exposure among Israel Defence Forces veterans. Method: A volunteer sample of 191 Israeli combat veterans were recruited during 2017, and completed validated self-report questionnaires tapping PMIEs, PTSD, and depression in a cross-sectional design study. A regularized Gaussian graphical model was estimated. Results: Network analysis revealed strong bridge associations between the PTSD nodes and most of the PMIEs nodes. The nodes of PMIE-betrayal and PTSD negative alterations in cognitions and mood (NACM) symptom cluster were found to have a bridging function between other PMIEs and PTSD. Depression was found to be connected to most of the PMIEs and PTSD nodes. Conclusions: The study’s findings offer an overview of the complex relationships between PMIEs and PTSD clusters among Israeli veterans. PMIEs––notably, betrayal-based experiences––are related to PTSD clusters directly and through depressive symptoms. Some possible mechanisms for the links between PMIEs and PTSD and the clinical implications related to specific interventions are discussed.

Grief after suicide entails unique challenges and difficulties, such as intense feelings of anger and guilt, as well as various psychological risks. The current study examined the contribution of self-forgiveness (SF) to emotional distress (e.g., depressed mood and suicidal ideation) among suicide-loss survivors, compared with bereavement following sudden and expected death types. Bereaved individuals (N = 309; aged 18-84) completed questionnaires measuring SF, depressed mood, suicidal ideation, demographics, and personal characteristics concerning the bereavement. A significant interaction between SF and type of loss was found, in which suicide-loss survivors with low levels of SF manifested the highest levels of depression and suicidal ideation compared with other subgroups. The findings reflect the importance of SF as a protective factor against depression and suicidality among suicide-loss survivors as well as the possible efficacy of forgiveness-based interventions in this population.

Most previous research on self-disclosure (SD) focused on its perceived retrospective aspects using self-report questionnaires. Few studies investigated actual SD as reflected in interpersonal interaction. We propose a comprehensive approach that combines new objective and dynamic measures of SD that evaluate situated SD with the traditional measures that evaluate stable SD properties. As SD is essentially verbal, we build on linguistic parameters for assessing actual SD, including acoustic features such as intonation and fluency, and verbal features such as the particular choice of words. Critically, the new measures highlight SD here and now and may reveal transient situational factors that affect it, such as the dynamics of interpersonal interaction. Based on these measures, we propose a three-dimensional evaluation that can portray different profiles of SD and offer a better prediction of SD behavior in different situations. The theoretical and clinical implications of the proposed approach are discussed.

BackgroundOne of the main obstacles in studying suicide risk factors is the difference between cases in which the individual died by suicide and those in which the individual engaged in suicidal behavior. A promising strategy that overcomes this obstacle is the study of survivors of serious suicide attempt (SSA), i.e., an attempt that would have been lethal had it not been for the provision of rapid and effective emergency treatment. Serious suicide attempters are epidemiologically very much like those who died by suicide, and thus may serve as valid proxies for studying suicides. This paper aims to define the specific risk factors for SSAs by conducting a qualitative data synthesis of existing studies.MethodsFollowing Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, we conducted a systematic search of the literature in PubMed, ProQuest, and Psychlit electronic research-literature databases. Search terms were “serious” “OR” “near lethal,” combined with the Boolean “AND” operator with “suicide*.” In addition, we performed a manual search on Google Scholar for further studies not yet identified.ResultsThe preliminary search identified 683 citations. A total of 39 research reports that met the predefined criteria were analyzed. Mental pain, communication difficulties, decision-making impulsivity, and aggression, as well as several demographic variables, were found to be major risk factors for SSAs.LimitationsWe found a variability of definitions for SSA that hamper the ability to draw a model for the risk factors and processes that facilitate it. Moreover, the role of suicide intent and planning in SSA is still unclear. Further studies should aim to clarify and refine the concepts and measures of SSA, thereby enabling more specific and concrete modeling of the psychological element in its formation.ConclusionSSA is a distinguishable phenomenon that needs to be addressed specifically within the scope of suicidal behavior. Interpersonal problems, as well as impulsivity and aggression, seem to facilitate SSA when mental pain serves as a secondary factor. Healthcare professionals should be aware of SSA, and familiar with its specific risk factors. Moreover, psychological and suicidal risk assessment should include a designated evaluation of these risk factors as part of intervention and prevention models for SSA.

Although highly researched among veterans, the underlying mechanisms of suicidal ideation (SI) among former prisoners of war (ex-POWs), especially in the long-term, have rarely been investigated. Furthermore, while posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and loneliness have been individually associated with veteran SI, and both may be differentially implicated by captivity versus war traumas, the interplay between them has yet to be examined. Filling this gap, the current longitudinal study examined a hypothetical sequential model wherein war captivity, compared with combat-induced trauma, is implicated in worse PTSS, which is then implicated in worse loneliness and PTSS, which together may explain subsequent SI. Two groups of Israeli veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War, 163 ex-POWs and 185 matched non-captive veterans were assessed 18 (T1) and 30 (T2) years after the war. Analyses indicated that compared with war, captivity was implicated in worse PTSS, which was implicated in worse loneliness, and these worked in tandem to implicate SI. Loneliness, however, was not directly affected by the type of trauma, nor was its relation to SI linked to its implication in subsequent PTSS. These results may inform future research and clinical practice as the study underscores the importance of both PTSS and loneliness in ex-POWs’ long-term SI.

In this study we present and empirically examine a new phenomenon related to social networking sites, such as Facebook, the “false Facebook-self.” Arguably false self-presentation on Facebook is a growing phenomenon, and in extreme cases; i.e., when ones Facebook image substantially deviates from their true image, it may serve as a gateway behavior to more problematic behaviors which may lead to psychological problems and even pathologies. In this study we show that certain users are more vulnerable to such false self-presentation than others. The study involved 258 Facebook users. Applying ANOVA and SEM analyses we show that users with low self-esteem and low trait authenticity are more likely than others to present a Facebook-self which deviates from their true selves. These social-interaction-related traits are influenced by one’s upbringing and the anxious and avoidant attachment styles he or she has developed. Several cases (7.5%) with large gaps between the true and false Facebook-self were detected, which implies that future research should consider the adverse consequences and treatments of high levels of false Facebook-self.