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Lithic technological organisation within the southern Africa Early Middle Stone Age (∼315,000–80,000 years ago) has seen relatively little investigation owing to the subtly of technological change, frequent use of locally derived raw materials, and the archaeological spatio-temporal discontinuity. This has resulted in relatively limited use of explanatory models for technological variability, including mobility, provisioning, tool production, and core reduction strategies. This paper uses 2952 artefacts to test the lithic technological organisation across Marine Isotope Stage 5 units of Mertenhof Rockshelter. Here we argue that the scales and concepts currently used to approach Early Middle Stone Age technology requires reconsideration. The Mertenhof sequence exhibits high proportions of non-local raw materials with their transport reflective of tactical adjustments within relatively stable mobility, provisioning, and reduction strategies. We demonstrate that Early Middle Stone Age populations maintained a diverse array of tactical solutions across these strategic domains, offering a durable and flexible strategy that would be adapted to changing contexts.

Abstract The Aurignacian is the first European technocomplex assigned to Homo sapiens recognized across a wide geographic extent. Although archaeologists have identified marked chrono-cultural shifts within the Aurignacian mostly by examining the techno-typological variations of stone and osseous tools, unraveling the underlying processes driving these changes remains a significant scientific challenge. Scholars have, for instance, hypothesized that the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) super-eruption and the climatic deterioration associated with the onset of Heinrich Event 4 had a substantial impact on European foraging groups. The technological shift from the Protoaurignacian to the Early Aurignacian is regarded as an archaeological manifestation of adaptation to changing environments. However, some of the most crucial regions and stratigraphic sequences for testing these scenarios have been overlooked. In this study, we delve into the high-resolution stratigraphic sequence of Grotta di Castelcivita in southern Italy. Here, the Uluzzian is followed by three Aurignacian layers, sealed by the eruptive units of the CI. Employing a comprehensive range of quantitative methods—encompassing attribute analysis, 3D model analysis, and geometric morphometrics—we demonstrate that the key technological feature commonly associated with the Early Aurignacian developed well before the deposition of the CI tephra. Our study provides thus the first direct evidence that the volcanic super-eruption played no role in this cultural process. Furthermore, we show that local paleo-environmental proxies do not correlate with the identified patterns of cultural continuity and discontinuity. Consequently, we propose alternative research paths to explore the role of demography and regional trajectories in the development of the Upper Paleolithic.

The Middle Paleolithic in Eastern Germany presents a unique context for understanding Neanderthal populations' dynamics within environmental shifts. The cyclical ice-sheet growth and advancements during the late Middle and Late Pleistocene caused occupational gaps in North-western and Central Europe and recurring episodes of recolonization from the southern regions. From cold tundra and steppe landscapes to forested habitats during climatic amelioration, these environmental changes significantly influenced Neanderthal settlement patterns and adaptive strategies. In this study, the lithic assemblages from some Middle Paleolithic sites stretched between Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt are analyzed. Despite migrations occurring over millennia, our study reveals that the unidirectional reduction scheme was continuously applied to different knapping methods remaining a common technological substrate during the whole Middle Paleolithic. The introduction of asymmetric bifacial tools during MIS 5c/MIS 5a did not alter predominant flake production methods. Contrariwise to support a techno-cultural stasis lasted several millennia, this study reveals that this technical continuity could be related to the changes in raw material size occurred during the Middle Pleistocene. Large erratic flint nodules during the Elsterian glaciation promoted loss-making behaviors, while the transport of smaller nodules during the Drenthe glaciation encouraged more intensive exploitation of pebbles during the Late Middle Paleolithic. By shedding light on Neanderthal lifeways, technological adaptations, and settlement patterns in Eastern Germany, this research contributes to a nuanced understanding of their behavior amidst evolving environmental conditions.

A growing number of authors have discussed the role of climate change in periods of important biological and cultural transition along the hominin lineage. This paper establishes a biocultural framework elucidating human behavioural adaptations during the African Early and Middle Stone Age, centred on three crucial dimensions of hunter-gatherer adaptation: mobility, social network dynamics, and technology. We contend that landscape properties, specifically resource diversity and seasonal to inter-annual resource variability, can be used to model the specific responses of hominin groups to climate change over time, based on their awareness of these properties. Specifically, we focus on hominin technological generalisation and specialisation, meaning the extent to which there is a high degree of specificity (or fit) between final tool form and the task(s) in which the tool is deployed.In this regard, we argue that the archaeological record reveals punctuated and discontinuous specialisation during certain phases of the Early Stone Age driven by landscape predictability. These periods encourage the expression of relevant innovations and stepwise increases in technological complexity. While some of them become lost to demographic or cultural stochasticity, others end up forming the basis for a standardisation of generalised forms within the context of unexpected climatic deterioration. This is highlighted by the late Acheulean: following a period of greater generalisation in the late Early Pleistocene correlating with repeated and severe orbitally-forced periods of aridity, smaller biface forms become more common (or absent) and regional experimentation with prepared-core technology in Eastern Africa takes place in the context of a return to more humid and stable climatic conditions. The onset of more arid and variable climates associated with the emergence of the Middle Stone Age led to the continental expansion of the prepared-core technological substrate underpinning generalised assemblages. The cycle continues in the Middle Stone Age with a return to climatic stability in the Late Pleistocene and subsequent regional diversification of this techno-complex, in which hominins responded with greater toolkit specialisation in a number of different ways. In this context, we support the existence of a cyclical and non-linear relationship between environmental adaptation and cognitive evolution, as part of a wider biocultural feedback loop, which contributes to explain the evolutionary roots of our “generalist specialist” niche.

We present a series of 12 OSL/IRSL dates that revise and complete the chronology of the important Middle (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) site Umbeli Belli in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. These dates shift the previous radiometric ages thousands of years older than earlier measurements and play a key role in revising the cultural stratigraphy of KwaZulu-Natal. We also discuss how these dates bring the chrono- and cultural stratigraphy of southern Africa into clearer focus. The Robberg sequence of Umbeli Belli is now firmly dated to 21 ± 2 ka, whereas the preceding Early LSA assemblage dates to ~32 ka, representing one of the earliest dates for this cultural expression in the broader region. The final MSA assemblages from Layer 7 to 9 now date to between 35 ka and 40 ka, overlapping more tightly with comparable assemblages from Sibhudu, Umhlatuzana and other sites. Layer 10, which was previously also assigned to the final MSA, now dates to ~47–54 ka, placing the assemblage within the temporal range of the Late MSA. The new dates provide a good explanation for the clear differences in material culture between Layer 10 and the younger layers. We also present two new ages for the deeper horizons 11b and 12 at Umbeli Belli, dating to 76 ± 9 ka and 80 ± 9 ka, respectively. Significance: • Revised and new age estimates are given for the Middle and Later Stone Age sequence of Umbeli Belli. • These age changes allow new comparisons with nearby prehistoric sites. • They change our view of the regional variability of technologies and cultures between ca. 80 and 20 ka on the east coast of South Africa.

Sharbithat 10 (SHA-10) was discovered in 2017 during the first extensive survey of the northern part of the Dhofar region. Located on a vast mesa surrounded by wadi deltaic branches and abundant sources of flint, SHA-10 is characterized by flint scatters, dwellings, and cairns. Initial test trenches revealed a single period stratification sequence, highlighting a rich marine faunal composition and intense flintknapping activity. The fishing equipment, typical of coastal sites from this period, accompanies a distinctive lithic industry comprising blades, backed pieces, and tanged points. Through the study of technological processes leading to the manufacture of these artefacts, analysis of the points’ morphological variability, and examination of the prevalence of backed bladelets, new hypotheses regarding coastal subsistence strategies and chronological issues have emerged. However, the potential co-occurrence of different facies complicates a chronological definition which can be partly clarified by radiocarbon data results. In this communication, we present a preliminary study of this unique assemblage, discuss its chrono-typological implications, and explore their significance within the framework of South Arabian prehistory.

This study aims to evaluate the functionality of a sample of lithic tools from a multiproxy perspective. The artifacts come from a mid-Holocene hunter-gatherers’ occupation of the La Mesada site in Patagonia. The perspective involves the examination of use-wear traces, hafting wear, and organic micro-residues. The experimental program that supports this perspective is presented. Use-wear traces and organic residues were recognized in the distal portion of the archaeological artifacts. Meanwhile, some tools, in the proximal and middle portion, present alterations attributable to hafting in combination with animal and vegetable residues. The production sequence of a particular artifact design is discussed, with distinctive aspects regarding regional trends. Practices related to plant management were identified that allow the evaluation of mobility circuits and interchange mechanisms of these societies.

Archaeological investigations worldwide have focused on when and how humans permanently settled in high-altitude environments. Recent evidence from Xiada Co, Qusongguo, and Dingzhonghuzhuzi in western Tibet, where lithic artifacts and radiocarbon dates with original deposits were first accessed, provides new insights into human activities in this extreme environment during the early Holocene. This paper examines the mobility and land-use patterns of foragers in western Tibet from the perspectives of lithic analysis. Assemblages from three sites suggest homogenous technologies and raw material use, as well as potential interaction network of hunter-gatherers within the plateau during the early Holocene. It further argues that the material exponents and travel cost models of site location supported permanent occupation of the western Tibetan Plateau in this period.

The authors studied 36 obsidian-tipped spears in the Oceania collection of the Museum of Ethnography in Budapest. In addition to describing the objects from the Admiralty Islands collected before 1897, the paper provides a summary of the related ethnographic information, including the technological and technical details of spear point making and the characterisation of the obsidian raw material used. The blades used for making the obsidian points presented in this study showed no sign of standardisation (an indicator of advanced blade technology) in the spear point-making process. According to 19th-century ethnographic sources, the functional part of the points was the most important, and much time and effort were invested in ensuring that the blades were effective weapons. Later, as a sign of decline, primary production of obsidian blades ceased, and manufacturers started scavenging old artefacts and utilising waste and by-products. As a result, the blades decreased in size and became more irregular, and an increasingly large number included parts of the cortex, the crust of obsidian. After 1911, the relative importance of decoration increased, and the type became more standardised. The irregular shape of the spear points presented in the study and the thin, weak shafts with an awkward curvature raise questions about whether the spears were actual weapons. At the same time, the artistic decoration of the mounting sockets and ethnographic parallels suggest that the pieces in the collection were likely status objects instead.

Assos (Behram) is built on the ancient volcanic hill 234 meters high, located on the southern coast of Troas, just opposite the island of Lesbos. The archaeological background of Assos dates back to the Chalcolithic at the earliest and is mostly associated with ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine periods. For this reason, the Paleolithic researches in the region to create the prehistoric chronology of Assos is of great importance. In the researches carried out around the ancient city in 2021, 12 Paleolithic findspots were identified. The findspots are directly related to raw material sources such as basalt, flint are very rich on the land. Lithic assemblages consist of large cutting tools, pebble core technology, prepared and unprepared core technology, retouched and unretouched flakes technology groups. Large cutting tools associated with core tool technology such as bifacial handaxes, massive scrapers, chopper, and chopping tools are important among artifacts. Prepared core technology are associated with the Levallois technique was highly used. The proportion of retouched tools was high and was mostly associated with denticulate and notched tools. The assemblages reflect the characteristics of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic periods in terms of their technological features. The high precentages of tool groups point the function of living areas rather than workshops. The result of the initial research conducted in Assos, which has a special geographical location between Asia and Europe, led to the arrival of important remains that proved hominin activity in the early stages of the Paleolithic period.

In the second half of the fifth millennium BC, a new model of supply and processing of siliceous rocks appeared in western Lesser Poland (Małopolska). The existing methods of production of blades and flakes from small cores obtained at a short distance from the settlement were supplemented by those enabling the production of much longer blades from cores made from raw material obtained by mining. The significant increase in the size of lithics meant that this moment was referred to as “the metric change” (Polish: przełom metryczny). It was assumed that this was due to internal technological development within the early Neolithic communities of the Lengyel-Polgár cycle. This paper introduces a different explanation for this phenomenon. It is argued that the new model of supply appeared as an already developed model that was implemented by experienced outsiders. A thesis that the indicated technological caesura is not categorical and new patterns in a relatively small area could co-exist with previous ones.

This article presents initial results from excavations at Maritime Academy, Frindsbury, which produced several handaxes, two of which can be classed as 'giant handaxes'. Artefacts were recovered from fluvial deposits in the Medway Valley and are thought to date from the Marine Isotope Stage 9 interglacial. This article focuses on the largest of these handaxes and presents metrical data for the artefact and initial comparison with similar artefacts from the British Palaeolithic.

Recent excavations at Sofular Höyük (Nevsehir, central Turkey) uncovered Aceramic Neolithic deposits dating to the late 9th and early 8th millennium cal BC and a lithic industry almost entirely made of obsidian. This study focuses on the techno-typology of this lithic assemblage and provides a first look at the material procurement strategies through geochemical characterization. Our results show that Sofular Höyük shares many general techno-typological features with contemporary sites in Central Anatolia, placing the settlement within the locally rooted traditions of the region, while the pXRF analysis of a selection of obsidian artefacts indicates the presence of two Cappadocian sources, namely Göllüdağ and Acıgöl.

Data about Palaeolithic peopling, settlement dynamics and techno-economy of the south-western margin of the Alpine region are sketchy. In this area, the lack of systematic research and the scarcity of lithic raw materials, spread the idea that Piedmont was not inhabited during Palaeolithic. In 2009, the re-starting of the excavations at the Ciota Ciara cave, gave rise to new questions and to the development of research projects at a regional scale. The Ciota Ciara cave is the only Middle Palaeolithic site object of multidisciplinary and systematic investigations. Its lithic assemblage, analysed through a techno-economic approach, allows to understand in detail the technological choices and the land mobility of the Neanderthal groups on a local and sub-regional scale. Other Middle Palaeolithic assemblages are known in the region and are all issued from surface collections. They come from the northern part of the region, from Vaude Canavesane, Trino, Baragge biellesi and Colline Novaresi. The technological study of these assemblages led to the identification of strong similarities in the technological choices of the Middle Palaeolithic human groups: they based their technology on the exploitation of vein quartz, a rock diffused all over the regional territory, from time to time accompanied by other local (spongolite, rhyolite, metamorphic rocks, jasper) and allochthonous (radiolarite and flint) lithic resources, with technological adaptation to their quality and mechanical properties both when it comes to predetermined methods (Levallois and discoid) and when expedient reduction sequences are used. Concerning Upper Palaeolithic, the only lithic assemblage issued from an archaeological excavation (and therefore with a clear stratigraphic context) is that from the Epigravettian site of Castelletto Ticino. Other lithic artefacts referable on a techno-typological basis to Upper Palaeolithic are from Trino and Colline Novaresi. As for Middle Palaeolithic, the techno-economic approach used in the analysis of these lithic assemblages, allow to have, for the first time, reliable data at a regional scale. In this work we present the data obtained after about ten years of research in Piedmont: they outline a scenario where, even in the limits of analysis mostly based on materials issued from surface collections, we can see both clear differences between the Middle and the Upper Palaeolithic technological behaviours and hypothesise the land mobility of the hunter-gatherers’ groups that inhabited the region.

The main objective of this research is to analyse the lithic technology applied to obsidian, a raw material popular amongst pre-Columbian populations from Northwestern Argentina (NWA) because of its social and symbolic value. The analysed assemblage comes from the archaeological site of Villavil 2 (VV2), located in the Hualfín Valley (Catamarca, Argentina) and distant ca. 100 - 200 kms from the nearest sources of this raw material. VV2 was discovered in 2015 by one of the authors and shows a particular presence of rock art which had not previously been registered in this area. The site was associated to the Late and Inka Period (ca. 10th - 16th centuries CE). So far, we suggest that this was a place of temporal, but periodical use that best fits with what we would call a ceremonial space. The assemblage comprises the totality of obsidian elements collected from both superficial and stratigraphic contexts. It was divided into three typological classes: tools (projectile points), flakes with natural sharp edges (FNSE) and waste products (WP). We did not identify the presence of cores. The analysis considered the following variables: knapping methods and techniques, size, amount of cortex, flake type and edge types. At VV2, points are the only retouched tools made of obsidian. They correspond to the triangular unstemmed concave-based type, very common during the Late-Inka Periods, and they were shaped using the perimetral bifacial pressure technique, possibly from flake blanks. FNSEs’ size is small, and they present scarce cortex. On the other hand, the abundance of very small-sized WPs is remarkable. They were found in the same stratigraphic context and attest a complete finish of the points (edge retouch). The results let us infer that the point-shaping tasks were carried out in situ. Moreover, the implemented technology involved both major production efforts and skills, that contrast with those involved in local raw material knapping. It is possible that this curated strategy was not related to the difficulty of accessing this allochthonous material. Instead, these choices could reflect social and symbolic meanings. According to linguistic and ethnohistoric information, the obsidian brightness and transparency are propitiatory to win the favour of the w'akas. Furthermore, in NWA the obsidian long-distance exchange is an ancient pre-Columbian tradition that lasted for a long time. Obtaining obsidian could display the ability of a social group to access distant resources and legitimize their political status. Nevertheless, we cannot forget that this raw material also was very important for making different artefacts for subsistence activities.

New methodological approaches focused on studying the reduction and use-life of stone tools have emerged in recent years, enabling researchers to move beyond strict technical and technological characterizations and explore specific aspects of occupation dynamics and economic management of resources. Previous studies have shown the importance of reduction distributions of individual measurements rather than averaged values. In this sense, survival analysis, and more specifically Weibull distributions, are one of the main inferential tools used in reduction studies. However, the resolution of Weibull distribution obtained from different methods has not been tested experimentally. In this paper, we present an evaluation of some of the main methods used in the study of core reduction intensity, such as the Volumetric Reconstruction Method, the Scar Density Index, and the non-cortical surface percentage. Our results show 1) strong and positive correlations between these approaches and actual reduction intensity, 2) similar Weibull distributions for non-cortical surface percentage, Volumetric Reconstruction Method, and logarithmic transformation of Scar Density Index. In addition, 3) the results from each method show a similar intra-assemblage variation, with a high percentage of agreement between them. As a result, all the evaluated proposals are useful and reliable methods for estimating the degree of reduction. Finally, a workflow is proposed for approaching reduction in archaeological assemblages by integrating different methods in the same study.

Lithic artefacts are usually associated with the different knapping methods used in their production. Flakes exhibit metric and technological features representative of the flaking method used to detach them. However, lithic production is a dynamic process in which discrete methods can be blurred, and in which features can vary throughout the process. An intermediate knapping method between the discoid and Levallois is commonly referred to under an umbrella of terms (the present research uses the term hierarchical discoid), and is associated with a broad geographical and chronological distribution throughout the Early and Middle Palaeolithic. This intermediate knapping strategy exhibits features of both the discoid and Levallois knapping methods, raising the question of the extent to which flakes from the three knapping methods can be differentiated and, when one is mistaken for another, the direction of confusion. An experimental assemblage of flakes detached by means of the three methods was used along with an attribute analysis and machine learning models in an effort to identify the knapping methods employed. In general, our results were able to very effectively differentiate between the three knapping methods when a support vector machine with polynomial kernel was used. Our results also underscored the singularity of flakes detached by means of Levallois reduction sequences, which yielded outstanding identification values, and were rarely erroneously attributed to either of the other two knapping methods studied. Mistaking the products of the discoid and hierarchical discoid methods was the most common direction of confusion, although a good identification value was achieved for discoid flakes and an acceptable value for hierarchical discoid flakes. This shows the potential applicability of machine learning models in combination with attribute analysis for the identification of these knapping methods among flakes.

Lithic analyses have long been at the core of Paleoindian studies in the United States, but despite crucial changes in method and orientation, the earliest typological approaches continue to exert a strong influence on archaeologists’ understanding of Paleoindian assemblages. This chapter argues against these normative approaches by advocating in favor of dynamic perspectives on human behavior. It does so by outlining the historical contributions of technological studies to the discipline, from the early European influences to the more holistic frameworks used today. Our discussion underscores three fundamental phases of development, starting with key experimental work on the Folsom point in the mid-twentieth century. This led to an increased focus on the technological aspects of tool production and use. The second phase is heavily influenced by the development of processual archaeology, which had a profound effect on the conceptualization of lithic assemblages. It generated a wealth of systems-oriented approaches focused on the economy of lithic raw materials. Finally, and most recently, the boom in cultural ecological studies has again reshaped this landscape by creating modes of analysis that understand lithic technology as a strategic adaptation rather than a cultural fossil. To integrate these developments within the broader field of Paleoindian studies, we consider seminal papers and their role in heralding new orientations, alongside data illustrating these trends in publication.

The excavation of Crno Vrilo site (Zadar, Dalmatia, Croatia), carried out by B. Marijanović, has unearthed the vestiges of an Early Neolithic village dating back to ca. 5800–5600 cal BC. The lithic assemblage, with more than 4000 pieces, represents the biggest Impressed Ware assemblage of littoral Croatia. Lithic production at Crno Vrilo is characterised by the pressure Blade flaking on high-quality exogenous cherts (Gargano, southern Italy) reflecting important socio-economic and technical aspects that are specific to the Neolithic. The presence of some débitage elements such as flakes, debris, cortical and technological pieces indicates that standard pressure flaking occured at the site, while the presence of large Blades (with widths exceeding 20 mm) suggests production by lever pressure, a technique that required specialized knowledge and equipment. This article questions whether the lever pressure technique was used in the production of large Blades and examines the status of these Blades in the Crno Vrilo lithic assemblage by examining their technological and functional aspects.

The layer B is one of the lower layers of the long stratigraphic sequence of the Kamyana Mohyla 1 site. The layer B received eight new AMS radiocarbon dates that clarified its chronology: 7950–7300 calibrated years BC. They are in a reasonable correspondence with the dates for lower and upper layers. The lithic assemblage belongs to Kukrek cultural aspect. It is characterized by pencil-like conical cores, Kukrek inserts, Kukrek burins and Dęby burins, nongeometric microliths (oblique points). The assemblage finds close parallels in the sites of Kukrek, Ihren VIII, Melnychna Krucha SU4 and Domchi-Kaia. They can be united into Kukrek sensu stricto cultural unit. The overlying layer C yielded somewhat different complex that finds parallels in the materials of the so-called “Kukrek cultural tradition.” Due to clear stratigraphic position of these units in the Kamyana Mohyla 1 sequence, we are able to differentiate Kukrek sensu stricto and “Kukrek cultural tradition” and suggest their respective chronological positions.

Shaped stone balls (SSBs) were an integral part of human culture across the Old World for nearly 2 million years. They are one of the oldest implements made and used by humans. In this significant era, which was characterised by biological and cultural transformations, these round implements were a stable hallmark throughout the Lower Paleolithic period and beyond. However, while much research progress has been made in other stone tool categories, and despite the increased research efforts in recent years, attempts to define SSB function and typology have remained inconclusive, and broader cultural and cognitive aspects related to their production techniques, use and dispersal have yet to be explored in depth. What is the significance of their continuous presence and wide geographical distribution? What do these imply regarding the cognitive abilities of Oldowan and Acheulian humans? In this paper, we turn the spotlight on these enigmatic items. We address unresolved issues and explore the ergonomic and perceptual properties stimulated by the geometry of these items. We show that stone ball variability matches (modern) human hand palm variability. Moreover, when using SSBs in percussion activities, they are handled with the entire palm. Following, we discuss the role of SSBs in the context of socio-cultural processes. We suggest that SSBs reflect some of the earliest evidence in human history of a specific form that was conceptualised and recurrently acted upon.

The early Upper Palaeolithic marks the introduction at a continental scale of a fully-fledged laminar industry, and it is associated with the presence of Homo sapiens in the Near East and in Europe. For this period there are three commonly recognised early Upper Palaeolithic technocomplexes : the Early Aurignacian and the Protoaurignacian, in Europe, and the Early Ahmarian, in the Levant. They have been used to illustrate different dispersal routes and behavioural adaptations to climate change, different regional settings or to infer different land-use and mobility strategies. Still, there is no consensus on the criteria for assigning one lithic assemblage to a particular early Upper Palaeolithic technocomplex. The early Upper Palaeolithic assemblages from Banat are among those showing ambiguous results when observed through the current taxonomical lens. This paper evaluates the taxonomical stances comparing technological raw data from extensively published early Upper Palaeolithic sites in Europe and the Levant. The comparison of assemblages attributed to different technocomplexes reveals a much more homogenous picture than expected. Various behaviours that are ascribed to a particular technocomplex are widespread in others too, but they are overlooked because of unclear and non-standardised terminology. The present paper shows that trying to fit the archaeological record in abstract, short definitions leads to misunderstandings, with clear implications on the further conclusions made on human past behaviours. It further advocates for creating new shared criteria for analysing lithic assemblages and thus overcoming the taxonomical impasse

With over 200 peer-reviewed papers published over the last 20 years, 3D modelling is no longer a gimmick but an established and increasingly common analytical tool for stone artefact analysis. Laser and structured light scanning, photogrammetry, and CT scanning have all been used to model stone artefacts. These have been combined with a variety of different analytical approaches, from geometric morphometrics to custom reduction indices to digital elevation maps. 3D lithic analyses are increasingly global in scope and studies aim to address an ever-broadening breadth of research topics ranging from testing the functional efficiency of artefacts to assessing the cognitive capabilities of hominid populations. While the impact of the computational revolution on lithic analysis has been reviewed, the impact of 3D modelling on lithic analysis has yet to be comprehensively assessed. This paper presents a review of how 3D modelling in particular has impacted the field of stone artefact analysis. It combines a quantitative bibliometric analysis with a qualitative review to assess just how “revolutionary” 3D modelling has been for lithic analysis. It explores trends in the use of 3D modelling in stone artefact analysis, its impact on the wider lithic analysis field, and methodological, regional and theoretical gaps which future research projects could explore.

The knowledge about rocks availability in areas of archaeological investigations is fundamental in order to approach the lithic technology studies and human behaviors associated to its production. The aim of this paper is to characterize the structure of the basis of lithic resources of the area and to contrast previous observations. Here we present the first results of the prospections carried out in an inactive littoral cordon at the archaeological locality of Punta Entrada (Santa Cruz river mouth, Santa Cruz). Also petrographic analysis of samples recovered there are exposed. Patagonian Shingle Formation is the only one with outcrops in the area. This Formation would have functioned as a secondary source of a wide variety of lithologies of different qualities, which are presented in different sizes and morphologies thus offering a wide range of possibilities to the knappers.

The beginning of the Neolithic in the Adriatic region dates back to approximately 6000 cal BC, and the appearance of Impressed Ware pottery marks its generic development. By combining lithic, economic, and paleoenvironmental data, we propose a new arrhythmic model for the chronology of Neolithisation in the Adriatic. On the one hand, the available data suggest that in the south-central part of the basin (Dalmatia and Apulia) the transition to farming was relatively quick, resulting from the colonisation of an open landscape (seemingly linked to the “8.2 ka event” and the onset of a drier climate). These newcomers mostly settled in the fertile plains of the Dalmatian and Apulian hinterlands, basing their subsistence almost exclusively on agriculture and livestock, while lithic blade production in cherts from Gargano (southern Italy) indicates important social aspects and complex management strategies (mining activities, more complex modes of pressure flaking, and specialised distribution networks). However, on the other hand, in the northern Adriatic (Istria, Karst, eastern Po Plain, and Marches), the Neolithic emerged somewhat later, possibly as a result of some form of acculturation. Although available data are still scarce, some evidence suggests that the last Mesolithic groups played an active role in the process of Neolithisation in these areas, where certain Castelnovian traditions have been identified in the lithic production accompanying Impressed Ware (the use of local cherts, lamellar production by indirect percussion, and “simpler” forms of pressure flaking) and in the economy, e.g. importance of fishing.

This dataset is comprised of metric and non-metric lithic assemblage data from terminal Pleistocene through late Holocene prehistoric lithic assemblages recovered at nineteen archaeological sites in the upper Susitna River basin, southern Alaska Range. The data is stored in The Digital Archaeological Record public repository. This dataset has the potential to be reused in meta-analyses of demography and land-use patterns over time, aggregate regional lithic research, studies assessing methodological approaches to lithic analysis, and for educational purposes.

The Lake Cardiel basin (Central-West Santa Cruz) has been object of archaeological research seeking to discuss the relationships between climatic/environmental and social change during the Holocene. These researches cha-racterized the basin as a region of late settlement in relation to neighboring spaces. In this basin a drying process during the Holocene generated a reorganization of local populations. This paper approaches the problem from a particular site, Alero Los Guanacos 1, to discuss the way in which these processes are presented at a smaller scale. The site presents occupations during the mid and late Holocene. The technology recovered there is analyzed, and taking this into account, variations in the site use over time are discussed. Some of these variations differ from the general overview known for the basin. It is concluded that these differences are the result of the differential role of the different spaces in the settlement process.

In the upper basin of the Guadiana River, especially in the sectors drained by its right-bank tributaries, the Bullaque and Becea rivers, important concentrations of Acheulean and Mousterian industries can be found in a superficial position. These industries have provided series containing tens of thousands of pieces. Deposits in stratigraphic position have also been identified, related to the fluvial terraces of the Guadiana and Jabalón rivers and some tributaries. Within the sector studied, in the province of Ciudad Real, the position of these deposits is related to alluvial fans developed on the slopes of the immediate reliefs. These fans, mainly composed of Lower and Middle Ordovician quartzite gravel, were eroded in their distal positions by the Bullaque and Becea rivers, forming very low terraces on which large concentrations of Acheulean and Mousterian lithic industry can be found. El Sotillo, the only known stratigraphic site in the area, was excavated in 2017–2019 and consists of several levels with Mousterian and Acheulean industry. We present the technological characteristics of the main Acheulean assemblage recognised at this site, for which numerical dates have been obtained placing its chronology in the second half of the Middle Pleistocene. The location of these sites, in surficial position and El Sotillo, allows us to recognise a territorial space with specific geographic characteristics and a very significant human impact.

In this article, we report artefacts found at the valley of Tsagaan Turuut River in the Khangai Mountain ranges in Central Mongolia. The artefacts were identified based upon core morphology, tool types and retouch. Regarding the core reduction techniques, single striking platform and single reduction platform cores are dominant. Although the tools on flake blanks predominant, tools such as points and knives with massive blades also occur. Side scraper, point, borer, combination tool, and borers are types that are less represented within the collection. This tool collection is highly similar to several IUP and EUP sites (Chikhen-2; Tolbor-4, 15 and 16) in Mongolia in terms of its reduction techniques and tool morphology. On a larger scale, it is similar to those of Early Upper Paleolithic sites in Trans-Baikal and Altai Mountains in Russia and North China.

Situated on the extreme point of South America, southern Patagonia has yielded the southernmost evidence of Levallois lithic technology. There, enough evidence of the use of a method of core preparation for production of predefined flakes similarly structured to the known Levallois technology (LT) in the Old World is present. An overview of the currently available information (distribution, chronology, frequency, artifact classes, raw materials and techno-morphological attributes) on Levallois technology in southern continental Patagonia and on the Isla Grande of Tierra del Fuego (Argentina and Chile) is presented here in order to discuss its place in the shared technological background of local hunter-gatherers during the Holocene. The analysis of the information shows that the LT occurs at very low frequency, mainly involving cores, knives and sidescrapers on local raw materials but encompassing a high diversity in terms of ecological contexts and human subsistence. These findings are an indicator that several populations were simultaneously familiar with this technology, possibly through long-distance movements of individuals or social networks to share ideas and information on how to make and use these artifacts. In this regard, the middle Holocene was an important period when the LT became a shared technological phenomenon on a macro-regional scale. However, the evidence on LT is still scarce in Patagonian contexts and emphasizes possible linkages with other reduction strategies, especially the Discoid flaking method, the search for maximize lithic raw material exploitation and even the need to produce versatile tools to deal with a diversity of tasks. It is still unclear therefore whether the LT reflects a truly method to get predetermined flakes with specific morphological features or it mainly attended to other circumstances due to the influence of environment, the spatial organization of human groups or the lithic reduction systems. This issue probably requires an exhaustive study of Levallois cores, specially their own particular sequential development of reduction, frequency and relationship with other knapping techniques recorded in the Patagonian lithic assemblages.

The goals and background of this study are presented. A sample of rudimentary artifacts, recovered through survey and excavation from contexts in the American Southwest and southern Mexico, were physically examined to verify or reject their assumed validity as tools and their use in agricultural activities. Macroscopic and microscopic examinations were undertaken on these often overlooked and misidentified artifacts to ascertain evidence of human manufacture and use-wear. The results of the study indicate the specimens represent three general form categories of tools that have uses related to excavation and earth moving. To augment this evidence, information was gathered regarding find contexts, historic records, and from relevant literature. The geographic find locations and contexts of the artifacts, as well as their temporal placement, and likely group affiliations, are then discussed. Evidence indicates that, although probably used for other purposes, these minimally-retouched, hand-held, digging and earth moving tools were used in the preparation and maintenance of agricultural fields and irrigation canals, and functioned to support the subsistence system from ca. 400-1450 CE. These implements evidently also held social and ceremonial values and functions. The rudimentary nature of these tools is often found not to be commensurate with the sophisticated complexity of the associated agricultural infrastructure. Initial, very tentative, hypotheses are presented for this incongruity.

The distances that prehistoric hunter-gatherers transported lithic artifacts are often used to estimate how far groups moved across the landscape. Changes in the scales of stone tool transport, likewise, are frequently attributed to changes in group mobility behaviors. It is unclear what effects, if any, technological changes related to the design, manufacture, use, and discard of stone tools would have had on the broad archaeological patterns of stone tool transport that we use to make inferences about group mobility. This paper uses an agent-based model to explore how these human-level behaviors affect the accuracy with which transport distances reflect the scale of group residential mobility. The world of the model represents a simple “tethered” system where patterns of seasonal group movement are centered on aggregation at a lithic source. It includes representations of group-level mobility as well as parameters controlling three basic components that affect the utility of a tool kit: use-life (how many times a tool can be used before it is exhausted), inventory size (how many tools are carried), and frequency of use (how often tools are used over a given period of time). It also includes parameterized representations of “gearing up” behaviors that affect the number of new tools produced at a lithic source. Systematic experimentation demonstrates that these behaviors in combination have significant, patterned, nonlinear effects on the maximum distances with which stone tools are transported from their locations of manufacture. In a large number of cases, the maximum distance which tools are transported prior to discard significantly underestimates the maximum scale of group mobility. Many different combinations of tool production, use, and discard behaviors produce similar outcomes with regard to the scale of tool transport, suggesting that equifinality problems should be addressed as part of any consideration of changes in stone tool transport patterns.

A methodology for identifying prehistoric local learning communities is proposed. We wish to test possible relationships among communities based on continuity and variability in lithic reduction sequence technological traits with different visibility and malleability. Quantitative features reflecting different technological traits are measured on 3-D models of flint cores in different scales: the ratio between core thickness and reduction surface width, the angle between subsequent bands of production blank scars to the relative striking platform, and the average curvature of the ridge between each blank scar striking platform pair. Continuity and variability in these features are used to establish the relations among lithic assemblages on different hierarchical levels: local learning communities and geographically widespread cultural lineages. The Late Upper Palaeolithic and the Epipalaeolithic of the Southern Levant (ca. 27,000–15,000 cal BP) provide an opportunity to test our method. A progressive increase in territoriality is hypothesized throughout this timespan, yet the precise timing and modes of this phenomenon need to be defined. The present study analyzes six core assemblages attributed to different cultural entities, representing chronologically separated occupations of the Ein Gev area and the coastal Sharon Plain. Continuity in technological traits between the Atlitian (ca. 27,000–26,000 cal BP) and Nizzanan (ca. 20,000–18,500 cal BP) occupations of the Ein Gev area suggests that the same learning community repeatedly settled there during a long time span. Two geographically separate learning communities were defined in the study areas within the Kebaran cultural entity (ca. 24,000–18,000 cal BP); the group occupying the Ein Gev area possibly continued to settle there during the Geometric Kebaran (ca. 18,000–15,000 cal BP). Continuity in more conservative traits of the reduction sequence allows to tie these two communities to the same cultural lineage. The ability to track prehistoric learning communities based on quantitative features helps increase the objectivity and the resolution in the reconstruction of past cultural dynamics.

The spread and development of the Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan civilisation, one of the oldest civilisations of the world, is still an enigma. Indus Valley Civilisation was spread over modern day India and Pakistan. The civilisation has been divided into three phases, Early or Pre-Harappan, Mature or Urban Harappan and Post- or Late Harappan. The Urban phase is very well studied and understood. However, this phase is the culmination of a process that started much earlier. A lot of effort during recent years has led to new discoveries and clues regarding the interactions during the Early Harappan period between now politically divided areas. Unfortunately, this struggle to understand the spread of Early Harappan cultural traits between these distinct regions is one on-going and far from over. Explorations and subsequent excavations at the site of Juna Khatiya, situated in Kachchh district of Gujarat, India have brought to light noteworthy evidence of the Early Harappan period in terms of artefacts and burials. Other than the ubiquitous pottery, these indications include a lithic blade industry comprising of various types of blades, various types of scrapers, points and associated lithic debitage. The tools are made out of locally available raw material (mostly chalcedony). However, the discovery of a few blades of chert imported from the Rohri hills (situated about 500 km as-the-crow-flies from Gujarat) in modern Pakistan is important. Rohri chert blades are significant since they are very distinct and easily identifiable. The wide distribution of standardised Rohri chert blades is also often regarded as a testimony to the Harappan efficiency in long distance trade and craft production. The technique used in the manufacturing of these blades is known as the crested guiding ridge, a technique not observed in Gujarat before this contact between Sindh (in modern Pakistan) and Gujarat (in modern India) developed. This paper highlights the contributions of lithic artefacts to understand the Early Harappan interactions between these two politically divided but culturally united regions.

The Rompecráneo is a special kind of lithic artifact which was, presumably, involved in the capture of pinnipeds carried out along the Patagonian coast of Argentina during prehistoric times. Recent papers had offered some information about their morphology but up to now they are poorly studied. In order to offset this situation in a previous work we addressed their role in hunting technics developed at the archaeological locality of Punta Entrada (Santa Cruz, Argentina). This allowed us to propose that rompecráneos were used in combination with spears when hunting on the coast. With the aim of expanding this information, here we present an image gallery of some rompecráneos recovered there. Two of these pieces share a similar morphology but were made of different lithic raw materials. The other one has the appearance of a bola stone but its weight is higher than other bola stones in Patagonia. That is why it is considered a different kind of artifact. The importance of studying these kinds of artifacts is that they have the potential of providing information about the way people interacted with the different resources (biotic and abiotic) in the past so that a better understanding of human behavior can be developed. Gallery Figure 1. Geographic location of Punta Entrada. Figure 2. Rompecráneo made of andesite. The base can be seen in the lower part of the image. Weight: 593 g. Figure 3. Different view of the rompecráneo shown in Figure 2 Figure 4. Rompecráneo made of coquina. The base can be seen in the lower part of the image. Weight: 421 g. Figure 5. Different view of the rompecráneo shown in Figure 3. Figure 6. Bola stone made of andesite. Weight:1.476 kg. Figure 7. Detail of the groove of the bola stone shown in Figure 6 Figure 8. Context of recovery of bola stone presented in Figure 6.

Mesolithic pioneers reached Gotland around 9200 cal BP and adopted seal-hunting. The subsistence economy was flexible, and the importance of freshwater fish is reflected in the location of settlements and available stable isotope data. Overgrowing lakes provided an important subsistence base, and marine resources were mainly related to raw material needs. The narrower breadth of resources is reflected in the osseous production, where implements were made from seal bones. The lithic technology exhibits local adaptations over time – in the form of a simplification of the technology – that we relate to sedentism and increases in risk management and external networks.

This article represents a basic comparison of gouge collections from three different sites (Esh Shaheinab, Fox Hill and Kadero). These sites have produced important collections of lithics from the Early Neolithic period in central Sudan. Gouges were chosen as an important marker of various activities, and these were studied on the basis of examining this type of artefact. This paper presents basic observations on the technology and function of these artefacts.

The Late Pleistocene, Early and Middle Holocene Nubian cultural sequence was constructed after the pioneering work done in Nubia in the 1960s (Irwin et al., 1968; Wendorf ed. 1968c; Marks 1970; Nordström ed. 1972). Most of the prehistoric sites located by the expeditions during the Nubian Campaign were surface concentrations and their dating was made on the basis of their location on ancient Nile deposits attested at different levels: the Dibeira-Jer, Ballana, Sahaba, Birbet and Arkin formations (De Heinzelin 1968). Absolute elevation was also considered as relevant to a site’s date. Within this cultural sequence, the Qadan (Shiner 1968a) was usually associated with the Sahaba Formation, whose beginning was more or less established at 16,500 BP (De Heinzelin 1968), and the Jebel Sahaba cemetery (Site 117) was attributed to this same cultural phase. The Qadan sequence has been already discussed by the author (Usai 2008a) in a paper demonstrating that Shiner’s hypothesis that the Abkan Neolithic complex originated directly from the Qadan needed revision. This contribution continues this discussion but to suggest that it now appears that the Jebel Sahaba cemetery cannot be possibly associated with the Qadan. In doing so, it notes some possible discrepancies and some important factors.

Current perspectives of stone tool technology tend to emphasize homogeneity in tool forms and core reduction strategies across time and space. This homogeneity is understood to represent shared cultural traditions that are passed down through the generations. This represents a top-down perspective on how and why stone tools are manufactured that largely restricts technological agency to experts, adults and teachers. However, just as bottom-up processes driven by children and youth influence technological innovation today, they are likely to have played a role in the past. This paper considers evidence from the archaeological record of early Homo sapiens’ lithic technology in Africa that may attest to our long history of bottom-up social learning processes and learner-driven innovation. This evidence includes the role of emulative social learning in generating assemblages with diverse reduction strategies, a high degree of technological fragmentation across southern Africa during some time periods, and technological convergence through the Pleistocene. Counter to some perspectives on the uniqueness of our species, our ability to learn independently, to ‘break the rules’ and to play, as opposed to conforming to top-down influences, may also account for our technological success.

This paper reports briefly on the results of a short reconnaissance at the site of Qumayrah–Ayn 2 (QA 2), a new prehistoric site located in a poorly studied part of the Qumayrah Valley in northern Oman. A survey and limited probing by the Omani–Polish Qumayrah Archaeological Project confirmed the presence of a sediment, approximately 15–20 cm thick, which yielded not just lithics, but also stone installations discovered in situ. One of these installations was evidently a hearth, the other a kind of platform. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a prevalence of flake technology with rare blade products. Predominant in the tools group are side-scrapers, notches and perforators produced by direct-scaled retouch. The most characteristic tools are tanged projectile points made on flakes. The main problem is contextualizing these materials. On the grounds of certain premises they may be associated with the Fasad technocomplex, but not necessarily the pre-Neolithic one as is the case of the classic types. However, a much later chronology is also quite possible.

The paper presents, in detail, the investigations on the chipped stone assemblage discovered, during archaeological excavations, in the early Chalcolithic settlement at Isaiia - Balta Popii. The technological and typological analysis of the entire collection was accomplished taking into account the various raw materials that are its constituents. In the case of the raw material with the greatest frequency – the flint from the Moldavian Platform –, artefacts coming from all phases of the debitage are certified. The results obtained for Isaiia were then compared with those from other Precucuteni II - Tripolje A sites, highlighting the existence of technological and typological elements common for the lithic industries of the early Chalcolithic in Eastern Europe (North-East of Romania, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine)

The introduction of Neolithic long-blades in Scandinavia is tangent with the establishment of the earliest farming communities, i.e. the Funnel Beaker culture, yet the production of long-blades continued throughout the Middle Neolithic period (3300–2350 cal BC). This paper aims to further enrich our understanding of the 3rd millennium BC in Scandinavia by focusing on the occurrence and significance of long-blades. A re-assessment of the archaeological record from Norway has identified eight sites with long-blades and five settlement sites where the presence of long-blades was indicated by blade fragments and formal tools. In Scandinavia and northern Germany 41 long-blade deposit sites, comprising a total of 529 blades, are known. Based on the contexts in which the long-blades occur, it is argued that the Scandinavian long-blades played a central part in the everyday lives of both Neolithic farmers and Sub-Neolithic foragers – but for different reasons, e.g. hunting tools, weaponry, and harvesting equipment.

During road construction work, material attributed to the Final Palaeolithic was discovered at Skovmosen I, near Kongens Lyngby on Zealand, eastern Denmark. Although it is regularly mentioned in reviews of the southern Scandinavian Final Palaeolithic, the Skovmosen I assemblage has hitherto remained poorly described. We here review the site’s discovery history and its context. Aided by a three-dimensional digital recording protocol, this article details the assemblage composition and its technology. The assemblage is comprised of tanged points, scrapers and burins, alongside blades and cores as primary reduction products. Although evidently disturbed by the road construction that led to the site’s discovery, the material likely reflects the remains of a small Final Palaeolithic locale, where diverse activities were carried out.

The lithic assemblages from the principal early Neolithic sites in Northern Dalmatia have been analysed with respect to the technological aspects and principles of schéma and chaîne opératoire, débitage economy and raw material economy. Northern Dalmatia, the most fertile region of the Eastern Adriatic, hosts the most important Neolithic open-air sites. Early Neolithic is associated with the Impressed Ware culture and dates back to c. 6000–5400 cal BC. The Early Neolithic lithic assemblages are characterized by the pressure blade production techniques on high-quality Gargano cherts reflecting important socio-economic and technical mutations that are specific to the Neolithic. Moreover, the almost exclusive reliance on these exogenous cherts emphasizes the social aspects of such networks and reinforces the idea of cultural uniformity of Dalmatian and Apulian Impressed Ware.

We explore the implications of the spatial structure of the artifact assemblages at the Binushmuka I site, located in the north coast of the Beagle Channel (Tierra del Fuego). Considering the expectations derived from ethno-archaeological models concerning settlement patterns, we assume here that the spatial distribution of artifacts, which mainly depend on the number and duration of the occupations and the size of the group, can be used to evaluate the temporal characteristics of the assemblages. For evaluating pattern mobility, we also consider the spatial consistency of the location of the site in relation to features of the paleogeography and the archaeological landscape. The information corresponding to the stratigraphy, chronology and composition of the archaeological sites of this site is described. The confined size of the assemblages (~7m2) and the low degree of size sorting observed in the earlier record of Binushmuka are likely to represent short-term occupations by small sized groups. The spatial consistency between early Holocene occupations and marine hunter-gatherer assemblages observed at a regional level can suggest hypothetically that groups with similar mobility strategies could have occupied the site.

We explore the implications of the spatial structure of the artifact assemblages at the Binushmuka I site, located in the north coast of the Beagle Channel (Tierra del Fuego). Considering the expectations derived from ethno-archaeological models concerning settlement patterns, we assume here that the spatial distribution of artifacts, which mainly depend on the number and duration of the occupations and the size of the group, can be used to evaluate the temporal characteristics of the assemblages. For evaluating pattern mobility, we also consider the spatial consistency of the location of the site in relation to features of the paleogeography and the archaeological landscape. The information corresponding to the stratigraphy, chronology and composition of the archaeological sites of this site is described. The confined size of the assemblages (~7m2) and the low degree of size sorting observed in the earlier record of Binushmuka are likely to represent short-term occupations by small sized groups. The spatial consistency between early Holocene occupations and marine hunter-gatherer assemblages observed at a regional level can suggest hypothetically that groups with similar mobility strategies could have occupied the site.

This study uses data extracted from 3D models to compare blade cores from the Châtelperronian and Protoaurignacian stone tool industries. These technocomplexes are at the center of the debate surrounding the interactions between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans approximately 45 to 40,000 years ago. We created 3D models of lithic cores from the sites of Roc de Combe and Les Cottés using a standardized photogrammetry protocol. We then used data derived from these 3D models to make quantitative comparisons of artifact attributes that have previously been argued to distinguish the two stone tool industries in question. These attributes include the angle between the platform and flaking surfaces, the shape of core cross sections, and the angle between core axes. The conception of this study was not to privilege the use of new technological and statistical approaches over more traditional or qualitative forms of lithic analysis. Rather, our aim was to experiment with using digital tool to develop nuanced, reproducible ways to describe variability in lithic artifacts. Our results support the hypothesis that there is a difference in the angle between core surfaces between these two industries. Our analysis also indicates a difference in the angle between core axes, although we are more cautious in interpreting these results. An elliptical Fourier analysis of core cross section shape was inconclusive. We discuss what archaeological and methodological factors may have contributed to our results, and the roles of both qualitative and quantitative observations in archaeological research. 3D artifact models generated for this study are included as supplemental data and are available for use by other researchers.

In this article we present the results of a series of analysis performed on a lithic artifact from the Itaparica industry, a limace, found in Lapa Grande de Taquaraçu, an archaeological site bordering the Lagoa Santa area in Central Brazil. The site was occupied between 11.477 ± 133 cal. BP and 1.087 ±78 cal. BP, and the archaeological record for this occupation is related to the archaeological Lagoa Santa Tradition. However, the artifact was found in deeper and relative older archaeological levels, in a different stratigraphy context. The technological analysis confirms its exotic nature, not corresponding to the Lagoa Santa industry, but to another Paleoindian archaeological tradition instead. Its technological features are similar to the limaces related to Itaparica Tradition lithic industries. It’s important to notice that this is the only limace found at Lagoa Santa until now, and archaeological context did not allow us to associate it to the Lagoa Santa Tradition. In order to have an insight on the use of this artifact we performed some technological and micro-remain analysis. Various starch grains and other materials were recovered from the active parts of the artifact. The microbotanical analysis indicated the use of the artifact for processing starchy plants. As far as we know, this is the most ancient evidence of the processing of starchy plants in the Americas.

The Itaparica tradition is a lithic industry largely known with evidences of its presence in sites all over Brazil’s Central Plateau. Its main characteristic is the overwhelming presence of unifacially retouched artifacts (limaces) in these sites during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition and Early Holocene. Previous researches confirm the technological similarity of the limaces between some of these sites. This paper presents a technological analysis of the flaking residues of one of these sites: The Grutas das Araras Rockshelter, in which the oldest levels were interpreted as a lithic workshop.

The Middle Paleolithic assemblage from Ventalaperra level III, excavated in 1931 by Aranzadi and Barandiarán, was initially interpreted as being Aurignacian, and then as a Late Middle Paleolithic assemblage. Recent excavations at the site undertaken by Ruiz Idarraga and d'Errico have confirmed the Middle Paleolithic attribution, and have additionally produced data on subsistence strategies and environmental conditions. The results obtained from the technological analysis made on level III’s assemblage suggest that its characteristics fit with an Early Middle Paleolithic attribution. The extensive use of local raw materials, the absence of ramified productions, and the use of centripetal (Levallois and Discoid) and SSDA flaking systems, link this assemblage with sites like Arlanpe and Lezetxiki VI which have been dated to the end of the Middle Pleistocene, or nearby sites such as Abrigo Rojo, still under study. This reveals a behavioral pattern for Early Middle Paleolithic populations in the eastern Cantabrian Region characterized by an extensive use of the landscape, high mobility, short occupations and a high dependence on local resources to assure subsistence and technological provisioning.