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The purpose of the present paper is to further investigate the mathematical structure of sentences—proposed in a recent paper—and its connections with human short–term memory. This structure is defined by two independent variables which apparently engage two short–term memory buffers in a series. The first buffer is modelled according to the number of words between two consecutive interpunctions—variable referred to as the word interval, IP—which follows Miller’s 7±2 law; the second buffer is modelled by the number of word intervals contained in a sentence, MF, ranging approximately for one to seven. These values result from studying a large number of literary texts belonging to ancient and modern alphabetical languages. After studying the numerical patterns (combinations of IP and MF) that determine the number of sentences that theoretically can be recorded in the two memory buffers—which increases with the use of IP and MF—we compare the theoretical results with those that are actually found in novels from Italian and English literature. We have found that most writers, in both languages, write for readers with small memory buffers and, consequently, are forced to reuse sentence patterns to convey multiple meanings.

Introduction:The present study investigated how new words with acquired connotations of disgust and sadness, both negatively valenced but distinctive emotions, modulate the brain dynamics in the context of emotional sentences.Methods:Participants completed a learning session in which pseudowords were repeatedly paired with faces expressing disgust and sadness. An event-related potential (ERP) session followed the next day, in which participants received the learned pseudowords (herein, new words) combined with sentences and were asked to make emotional congruency judgment.Results:Sad new words elicited larger negative waveform than disgusting new words in the 146–228 ms time window, and emotionally congruent trials showed larger positive waveform than emotionally incongruent trials in the 304–462 ms time window. Moreover, the source localization in the latter suggested that congruent trials elicited larger current densities than incongruent trials in a number of emotion-related brain structures (e.g., the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus) and language-related brain structures (e.g., the temporal lobe and the lingual gyrus).Discussion:These results suggested that faces are an effective source for the acquisition of words’ emotional connotations, and such acquired connotations can generate semantic and emotional congruency effects in sentential contexts.

This study aims to determine the level of use of spelling, effective sentences, and Indonesian language paragraphs in scientific papers applied by undergraduate students of the State Polytechnic of Bali in the form of theses. This research is important because there is a tendency to use spelling, effective sentences, and paragraphs in student scientific papers that are not in accordance with applicable rules such as prepositions, punctuation. The method used in this study is a qualitative method, while the method of data collection in the form of documentation with qualitative descriptive analysis. Studies on spelling order, each of them scored: Managerial Accounting Study Program 98.73, International Business Study Program 98.96, Tourism Business Management Study Program 99.02, Construction Management Study Program 98.51 with an average rating of 98.80. At the sentence level each gets a value: Managerial Accounting Study Program 83.72, International Business Study Program 85.22, Tourism Business Management Study Program 77.25, and Construction Management Study Program 74.75, while at the paragraph level each value: Accounting Study Program Managerial 70.74, International Business Study Program 61.20, Tourism Business Management Study Program 60.31, and Construction Management Study Program 66.87, with an average rating of 64.78. Thus, it can be concluded that spelling ability, effective sentence, and student paragraphs applied bachelor of Polytechnic Bali is very good.

Research has shown that the initial few years of children’s lives are the best times for language to develop at a rapid pace, the first language (L1) or a foreign language (FL) may be acquired these times. Researches on preschoolers FL acquisition with home-based intervention (HBI) have not been studied extensively under the L1 environment. This study aims to examine the results of HBI on the development of the acquisition of Indonesian preschoolers’ English as a Foreign Language (EFL) sentences. This research is a case study with naturalistic observation design, where data were obtained from logbooks and interview. The research subjects were 2 preschoolers about 36 months. The study’s duration was 24 months from the 13th until the 36th month with HBI, namely parents-based and authentic/semi authentic-media intervention. The data were the children’s English sentences taken at 24th to 36th months at their own homes. The Owens’ acquisition of sentence forms measured the English sentences’ development of in the respondents’ conversation and self-narration. This research found that at about 36th month, these Indonesian preschoolers were able to communicate in English in various sentences such as declarative, negative, interrogative, imperative, embedded and conjoining. HIGHLIGHTS: • Simultaneous foreign language learning and first language acquisition for children is tangible advantage. • Authentic input and active interaction act as the language environment substitute in foreign language learning. • Intensive learning makes preschoolers speak a foreign language earlier.

Resumen: En Argentina rige el decreto ley 22.278/80 en materia de regulación penal juvenil. Dicho decreto es un resabio de la última dictadura que no fue modificado pese a numerosas iniciativas legislativas que proponen sancionar sistemas o regímenes penales juveniles con estándares de derechos adecuados a la Convención Internacional de los Derechos del Niño (CIDN). La no adecuación coloca al país en flagrante infracción y así fue manifestado en sucesivos informes del Comité de los Derechos del niño. Argentina también fue observada por la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH) por el dictado de sentencias condenatorias a prisión perpetua para quienes cometieron delitos siendo menores de edad, situación de particular gravedad, ya que la mayoría de los países de la región adecuaron sus legislaciones y fijaron topes a penas privativas de la libertad. Al fracaso legislativo, le sigue un punitivismo judicial de hecho. El objetivo del artículo es describir las claves del punitivismo a través del seguimiento de cinco fallos paradigmáticos dictados en los últimos años. Resumo: Na Argentina, o Decreto-lei 22.278 / 80 regra a regulação criminal juvenil. Este decreto é um remanescente da última ditadura não foi alterada apesar das numerosas iniciativas legislativas da juventude proposto criminais sistemas de regimes de sanções ou padrões apropriados para a Convenção Internacional sobre os Direitos da Criança (CDC) direitos. A falta de adaptação coloca o país em flagrante e isso se manifestou em relatórios sucessivos do Comitê dos Direitos da Criança. Argentina também foi observado pela Comissão Interamericana de Direitos Humanos (CIDH) mediante a emissão de sentenças à prisão perpétua por aqueles que cometeram crimes como os menores, uma situação particularmente grave, uma vez que a maioria dos países da região adaptaram a sua legislação e eles estabelecem tetos para a privação de liberdade. Ao fracasso legislativo, segue-se um punitivismo judicial de fato. O objetivo do artigo é descrever as chaves do punitivismo através do acompanhamento de cinco fracassos paradigmáticos ditados nos últimos anos. Abstract: In Argentina, decree law 22.278 / 80 governs juvenile criminal regulation. This decree is a remnant of the last dictatorship that was not modified despite numerous legislative initiatives that propose sanctioning systems or juvenile criminal regimes with standards of rights appropriate to the International Convention on the Rights of the Child (CIDN). The lack of adaptation places the country in flagrante infraction and this was manifested in successive reports of the Committee on the Rights of the child. Argentina was also observed by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) for the issuance of sentences of life imprisonment for those who committed crimes while minors, a situation of particular seriousness, since most of the countries of the region adapted their laws and they set ceilings to deprivation of liberty. To the legislative failure, it follows a judicial punitivism in fact. The objective of the article is to describe the keys of punitivism through the follow-up of five paradigmatic failures dictated in recent years.

Multivariate neuroimaging studies indicate that the brain represents word and object concepts in a format that readily generalises across stimuli. Here we investigated whether this was true for neural representations of simple events described using sentences. Participants viewed sentences describing four events in different ways. Multivariate classifiers were trained to discriminate the four events using a subset of sentences, allowing us to test generalisation to novel sentences. We found that neural patterns in a left-lateralised network of frontal, temporal and parietal regions discriminated events in a way that generalised successfully over changes in the syntactic and lexical properties of the sentences used to describe them. In contrast, decoding in visual areas was sentence-specific and failed to generalise to novel sentences. In the reverse analysis, we tested for decoding of syntactic and lexical structure, independent of the event being described. Regions displaying this coding were limited and largely fell outside the canonical semantic network. Our results indicate that a distributed neural network represents the meaning of event sentences in a way that is robust to changes in their structure and form. They suggest that the semantic system disregards the surface properties of stimuli in order to represent their underlying conceptual significance.

Abstract ᅟ Children who use cochlear implants (CI) and who are readers usually produce more accurate speech in response to text than to pictures. Equivalence-based instruction (EBI) can be a route to establish functional interdependence between these verbal operants. The present study investigated whether children with CI who read would improve speech accuracy when tacting pictures of scenes after EBI that included dictated sentences, pictures of scenes, and printed sentences. This study evaluated whether teaching verbal relations to diagonal sentences from a matrix with subject-verb-object combinations promoted recombinative generalization to untrained sentences. Participants were three children with CI with a more accurate speech when reading print than when tacting pictures of scenes. They were taught to select pictures of scenes in response to dictated sentences (AB) by matching-to-sample (MTS) and to construct printed sentences in response to dictated sentences (AE) by constructed-response-matching-to-sample (CRMTS). Speech production in response to print (CD) and in response to pictures of scenes (BD) were probed for both trained and untrained sentences, using a multiple baseline design across participants. All participants learned the trained relations, showed emergence of derived relations, and improved speech accuracy when tacting pictures of scenes. They were able to recombine sentence components and tact novel pictures using untrained sentences from the matrix. These results indicate that speech accuracy and generative sentence production can be improved in children with CI from interventions that incorporate EBI and matrix training. Trial registration CAAE#01454412.0.0000.5441 registered 01/29/2013.

The background of this research was based on the continued development of international aviation in the world which was a challenge for the translator to find an equivalent sentence. The purpose of this thesis was to find the equivalence type used in translating the source language to the target language and find the dominant equivalence type used. For solving this problem, the writer used Nida and Taber theory that divided equivalence types into two types, namely formal equivalence or formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence. The method used was descriptive qualitative method. The data was obtained through systematic sampling method. Based on the analysis, the equivalence types of 53 of 66 samples (80%) were translated by using formal correspondence; 12 of 66 samples were translated using dynamic equivalence (18%) and only one sample (2%) did not neither involve in formal correspondence nor dynamic equivalence because SL text did not have translation in TL (reserved). The most dominant equivalence type used in the translation was formal correspondence.

The parent-child relationship is a dynamic, socially and legally constructed relationship. The relationship between filiation and parenting calls in play the ties between social construction and ideology of kinship and its normative determination. Through the analysis of two sentences on lesbian and gay parenting, we analyze the way in which the request for the legal recognition of homoparenting produces a circulation of cultural, symbolic and scientific references between society and the courts. These judgments call in play the legal relationships and the actions of the subjects capable of producing new legal regulations and new representations of family, parenting and filiation ties.

The parent-child relationship is a dynamic, socially and legally constructed relationship. The relationship between filiation and parenting calls in play the ties between social construction and ideology of kinship and its normative determination. Through the analysis of two sentences on lesbian and gay parenting, we analyze the way in which the request for the legal recognition of homoparenting produces a circulation of cultural, symbolic and scientific references between society and the courts. These judgments call in play the legal relationships and the actions of the subjects capable of producing new legal regulations and new representations of family, parenting and filiation ties.

The paper aims at casting some light on the interrelations among the Gospels, Acts and Revelation. We do not consider words ranking and their frequency of occurrence, as largely done in the literature, but we analyze, statistically, some mathematical aspects of the texts, which the authors were not conscious of. We use mathematical methods developed for specifically studying deep-language parameters of literary texts, such as the number of words per sentence, the number of characters per word, the number of words per interpunctions, the number of interpunctions per sentence, all very likely peculiar to the writer’s style, after having recalled the punctuation in classical languages. First, we consider the full texts of the canonical Gospels, Acts and Revelation, then the partial texts attributable to the Triple Tradition (Matthew, Mark and Luke), to the Double Tradition (Matthew and Luke), Own Tradition (Matthew and Luke) and Q source. The mathematical/statistical tool used confirms and reinforces some general results concerning the Gospels, Acts, Revelation and Q source, but also evidences some interesting differences concerning the number of words per sentence and words per interpunctions, likely casting some light on the capacity of the short-term memory of the readers/listeners of these texts. All these New Testament writings fit very well in the larger Greek literature of the time. The existence of a proto gospel seems more probable than other possible hypotheses.

We have studied the very large amount of literary works written by the Italian mystic Maria Valtorta to assess similarities and differences in her writings, because she claims that most of them are due to mystical visions. We have used mathematical and statistical tools developed for specifically studying deep linguistic aspects of texts. The general trend indicates that the literary works explicitly attributable to Maria Valtorta differ significantly from her other literary works, which she claims are attributable to the alleged characters Jesus and Mary. Mathematically, they seem to have been written by different authors. The comparison with the Italian literature is very striking. A single author, namely Maria Valtorta, seems to be able to write texts so diverse as to cover the entire mathematical range (suitably defined) of the Italian literature spanning seven centuries.

El interés de este artículo radica en conocer los modos en que la justicia penal se despliega en su ejercicio real sobre adolescentes y jóvenes, autores o presuntos autores de delitos, en el ámbito de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Detenerse en las prácticas permitirá comenzar a comprender y analizar esas acciones con sentido que son desarrolladas por los diferentes agentes que construyen y reproducen la agencia judicial. Desde esta perspectiva, en este trabajo realizaremos una descripción y análisis de distintos juicios orales llevados a cabo contra adolescentes y jóvenes acusados de haber cometido un delito, que hemos presenciado en el transcurso de nuestros trabajos de campo en los Tribunales Orales de Menores localizados en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Partimos de considerar que esas audiencias orales constituyen momentos de interacción privilegiados para analizar las prácticas y argumentos de los diferentes agentes -jueces, fiscales, defensores, defensores públicos de menores- que cotidianamente construyen esta justicia. Para ello, además de realizar una descripción pormenorizada del procedimiento que formalmente regula la celebración de estos juicios, analizaremos esas audiencias orales en su calidad de rituales jurídicos, con el fin de indagar en las relaciones sociales y de poder que allí resultan escenificadas. A su vez, mediante la consulta de expedientes judiciales llevaremos a cabo una reflexión en torno a los argumentos utilizados por los magistrados en el sostenimiento de las segundas sentencias judiciales.This article looks into the ways in which criminal justice is currently deployed and exercised over teenagers and youth responsible or presumed responsible for crimes within the jurisdiction of the city of Buenos Aires. By focusing on practices, it is possible to begin to understand and analyze the "meaningful actions" developed by the various agents that construct and reproduce judicial agency. From this perspective, oral trials involving teenagers and youths accused of having committed a crime, which were followed during fieldwork at the Juvenile Oral Courts in the city of Buenos Aires, are described and analyzed. Such oral trials are considered as privileged moments of interaction for the analysis of practices and statements of the different agents -judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and public defenders for minors- who daily construct this form of justice. In doing so, besides describing in detail the procedures which formally regulate these trials, oral hearings are analyzed as juridical rituals in order to investigate the social and power relations which are staged. At the same time, through an examination of judicial files, the arguments used by judges in supporting second judicial sentences are reflected upon.

Constructing catalogue of temporal situations The paper is aiming to create a common basis for description, comparing, and analysis natural languages. As a subject of comparison we have chosen temporal structures of some languages. For such a choice there exists a perfect tool, describing basic temporal phenomena, namely an ordering of states and events in time, certainty and uncertainty, independency of histories of separate objects, necessity and possibility. This tool is supported by the Petri nets formalism, which seems to be well suited for expressing the above mentioned phenomena. Petri nets are built form three primitive notions: of states, of events that begin or end the states, and so-called flow relation indicating succession of states and events. This simple constituents give rise to many possibilities of representing temporal phenomena; it turns out that such representations are sufficient for many (clearly, not necessarily all) temporal situations appearing in natural languages. In description formalisms used till now there is no possibility of expressing such reality phenomena as temporal dependencies in compound statement, or combination of temporality and modality. Moreover, using these formalisms one cannot distinguish between two different sources of uncertainty of the speaker while describing the reality: one, due to the lack of knowledge of the speaker what is going on in outside world, the second, due to objective impossibility of foreseen ways in which some conflict situations will be (or already have been) resolved. Petri net formalism seems to be perfectly suited for such differentiations. There are two main description principles that encompassed this paper. First, that assigns meaning to names of grammatical structures in different languages may lead to misunderstanding. Two grammatical structures with apparently close names may describe different reality. Additionally, some grammatical terms used in one language may be absent and not understandable in the other. It leads to assign meanings to situations, rather than to linguistic forms used for their expression. The second principle is limit the discussed issues to such a piece of reality that can be possible for precise description. The third is to avoid introducing such information to the described reality that is not explicitly mentioned by linguistic means. The authors try to following these principles in the present paper. The paper is organized as follows. First, some samples of situations related to present tense are given together with examples of their expressions in four languages: English, (as a reference language) and three Slavic languages, representing South slavonic languages (Bulgarian), West slavonic languages (Polish), and East slavonic languages (Russian). Within the same framework the next parts of the paper are constructed, supplying samples of using Past tenses and, finally, future tenses and modalities. The formal tools for description purposes are introduced stepwise, according to needs caused be the described reality. There are mainly Petri nets, equipped additionally with inscriptions or labeling in order to keep proper assignations of description units to described objects.

The current study addresses the extent of phonological planning during spontaneous sentence production. Previous work shows that at articulation, phonological encoding occurs for entire phrases, but encoding beyond the initial phrase may be due to the syntactic relevance of the verb in planning the utterance. I conducted three experiments to investigate whether phonological planning crosses multiple grammatical phrase boundaries (as defined by the number of lexical heads of phrase) within a single phonological phrase. Using the picture-word interference paradigm, I found in two separate experiments a significant phonological facilitation effect to both the verb and noun of sentences like He opens the gate. I also altered the frequency of the direct object and found longer utterance initiation times for sentences ending with a low-frequency vs. high-frequency object offering further support that the direct object was phonologically encoded at the time of utterance initiation. That phonological information for post-verbal elements was activated suggests that the grammatical importance of the verb does not restrict the extent of phonological planning. These results suggest that the phonological phrase is unit of planning, where all elements within a phonological phrase are encoded before articulation. Thus, consistent with other action sequencing behavior, there is significant phonological planning ahead in sentence production.

Sundials are still often considered today, wrongly, as simply an artistic outdoor decoration. In fact, they are complex astronomical instruments, not only as conceived but also in actual reality. The principles applied in their construction are ruled by astronomy and cosmic laws subsuming the understanding of the movement of the sun. The science of building sundials is referred to as « gnomonics », from the ancient Greek γνωμων (gnomon) meaning the ultimately competent judge. The interpretation of mottoes and other inscriptions on sundials may facilitate the understanding of the notion of the passing of time, its possible conscious and unconscious, individual and collective interpretations, and the relationships that Mankind has established with it. France is privileged to have on its territory some very ancient sundials, consequently an analysis of the available data can reveal how those relations have changed over a period of centuries or even decades. Since 1998, a special committee of the French Society for Astronomy’s Sundial Commission (Paris, France) has been analyzing sundials and their mottoes. For the past seven years, the group has worked on a classification system founded on 12 categories based on their intrinsic meaning (for example : religious, philosophical, optimistic mottoes,...). After the analysis of approximately 3,000 mottoes, the system revealed several trends of particular meanings through time, and the results were published under the title Paroles de Soleil – Devises des cadrans solaires de France. This publication is now available to the public. It presents and explains 2,159 mottoes found on French sundials.

La Cámara de Castilla era el órgano de la Corona a través del cual los reyes castellanos ejercían sus prerrogativas de gracia y merced y resolvían todos aquellos asuntos que estaban reservados a su conocimiento exclusivo. Las resoluciones dictadas por los reyes a través de la Cámara eran objeto de frecuentes recursos por parte de aquellas personas que se consideraban agraviadas o perjudicadas en sus derechos e intereses legítimos. De estos recursos trata precisamente este trabajo, de cómo eran resueltos en el Consejo de Castilla por vía de expediente o, más usualmente, por vía de proceso, y de las frecuentes interferencias que se producían en la instrucción y resolución de los procedimientos como consecuencia de la intervención directa de los monarcas a través de vías de hecho. En la segunda parte del trabajo se ofrece a modo de ejemplo representativo el estudio de un procedimiento judicial instruido por el Consejo para sustanciar uno de estos recursos.The Chamber of Castile was the organism of the Spanish Crown through wich Castilian Kings conceded all kind of graces and decided about all that matters that were reserved to their exclusive domain. However, frequently these resolutions were appealed by those persons who considered that the decisions damaged their legitimate rights or interests. This article is about those appeals, that were determined by the Council of Castile by means of an administrative or judicial procedure, and about how Castilian Kings intervened frequently during the proceedings determining directly the resolution of the procedure. Since the most of the appeals were determined by the Council of Castile by legal means, the second part of the article includes as a representative example the study of one judicial procedure.

O objetivo do estudo foi verificar o efeito de dois procedimentos de ensino sobre a composição e compreensão de sentenças em crianças. No Estudo 1, cinco crianças foram expostas ao ensino de relações condicionais, testes de equivalência, ensino por encadeamento de respostas, testes de produção de sentenças, testes de conectividade e testes de leitura com compreensão. No Estudo 2, quatro crianças foram expostas apenas ao ensino por encadeamento de respostas e testes subsequentes. Utilizou-se três conjuntos de estímulos: desenhos, palavras maiúsculas e minúsculas. Em ambos os estudos, todos os participantes construíram as novas sentença, mas a leitura com compreensão só foi observada no Estudo 1. Esses resultados demonstraram a emergência de novas sentenças. Conclui-se que os estímulos utilizados foram funcionalmente equivalentes.