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Educational researchers conduct studies to gather critical empirical evidence in the determination of what are "evidence-based" curricular programs, which in turn, directly inform adoption efforts. The predominate method of validating these programs is through the use of group experimental designs, although single-case designs have also been advocated. This article posits the current standards set forth when validating curricular programs using single-case designs are significantly lacking. We propose an expansion of the existing standards to ensure a rigorous, accurate examination of curricular programs when determining their use as an evidence-based practice. We apply these standards to a subset of studies reviewed by McKenna, Kim, Shin, and Pfannenstiel (2017) in a recent evaluation of single-case reading intervention investigations including students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Using our expanded standards, we found none of the 14 studies met quality standards for curricular program validation. Recommendations are discussed.

Students with writing difficulties may have difficulty when writing informational text with source material due to (a) inexperience with such text and (b) difficulties reading and understanding source material. Teaching students to take notes related to informational text using text structures (e.g., description, compare/contrast) may help them access source text and improve planning and organization of their ideas. Two pilot studies examining the usability, feasibility, and promise of a note-taking and text structure intervention are presented in this manuscript. In study 1, the researchers employed a multiple-probe design across three 4th grade participants with reading difficulties. In study 2, the researchers employed an underpowered experimental design, comparing the intervention to a narrative-based reading and writing strategies. Fidelity of implementation was acceptable to high in both studies, indicating preservice teachers find it useable and it is feasible to implement the lessons within the 30-minute time frame. However, there were mixed results of the intervention on note-taking outcomes. In study 1, a functional relation was demonstrated for two of three participants for the note-taking measure. In study 2, the intervention group did not statistically outperform the control group on the note-taking measure, but there was a non-significant effect size of 0.75 between the groups. The findings, though mixed, warrant further study of the intervention in a fully powered study. Results on reading outcomes for both studies are also discussed.

Expository writing may be especially difficult for elementary grade students due to lack of background knowledge and unfamiliar text structures. A text structure writing intervention aimed at teaching students to write informational text using text structures has been shown to have promise for improving the informational text writing of upper elementary grade students using small group instruction ("Reading and Writing," 31, 2115-2145; "Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal," 31, 2165-2190; "Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal," 23, 35-55.). There are disadvantages to small group instruction, however, because it requires additional resources. In the current study, 41 students in grade 4 were randomly assigned to receive the "Structures Writing" intervention or BAU narrative writing instruction. Both groups received instruction in a large group setting. At posttest, students who received the "Structures Writing" intervention statistically significantly outperformed the control group on researcher-created measures of simple description, compare/contrast, sequence, problem-solution, and cause-effect writing. Results indicated no differences between on distal reading outcomes. The intervention components completed within the allotted time-frame were completed with a high degree of fidelity (97%), providing an indicator of usability. However, students only fully completed 57% of lesson activities, indicating that it is not feasible to complete the lessons within a 30-min time frame. The discussion highlights the "Structures Writing" intervention as a promising approach for improving informational text writing skills of fourth grade students with moderate to large effect sizes that support findings of a prior pilot test. A larger efficacy trial is warranted following revision of the lessons to shorten lesson duration.

It is well documented that youth with or at-risk for emotional and behavioraldisorders (E/BD) have severe deficits in their academic functioning. To beginto address these deficits, we focus on the need to close the opportunity gap by providing access to multi-tiered systems of academic prevention, maximizing academic learning time, and providing explicit instruction for youth with E/BD. We offer recommended positive behavior interventions and supports necessary to improve engagement in instruction. Closing the achievement gap using multi-tiered academic supports requires best practices for universal screening and diagnostic assessment to understand youth academic needs. We detail the key elements of explicit instruction directly linked to improved academic performance. We conclude with alterable instruction factors for intensifying instruction and emphasize the need for intensive language instruction for the majority of youth with E/BD.

Students who struggle with reading have particular trouble with expository text. Instruction in text structures has been shown to be effective for improving expository reading comprehension. However, few studies have been conducted specifically with upper elementary aged struggling readers. To address these issues, we developed a new intervention, "Structures", to improve the expository text comprehension of 4th and 5th grade struggling readers. In this study, we conducted a randomized control trial to assess the promise, usability, and feasibility of one component of the intervention designed to teach students to identify and discriminate the five text structures. Forty-five 4th and 5th grade struggling readers were randomly assigned to intervention or business-as-usual conditions. Students in the "Structures" condition were taught to identify and discriminate among the five text structures used by authors of expository text: description, sequence, cause/effect, compare/contrast, and problem/solution. At post-test, experimental students (n = 24) statistically significantly outperformed control students (n = 21) on a structures identification measure (d = 0.94). No other statistically significant differences were found. However, a practically (but not statistically) significant effect size was found on an oral retell measure (d = 0.29). Results also indicate the materials were usable for teachers and it was feasible to implement the intervention in a school setting. The implications and future directions of the development of remaining components in the "Structures" intervention are discussed.

Informational text writing is a complex task requiring multiple literacy skills, such as reading and comprehending source material, identifying important information, and transforming ideas to meet the goals for the new writing task. The "Structures Writing" intervention was developed to improve the informational text writing skills of 4th and 5th grade struggling writers by reducing the cognitive load associated with reading source text and teaching students to organize information using text structures. In the current study, sixty-one 4th and 5th grade struggling writers were randomly assigned to receive the "Structures Writing" intervention. Students in the "Structures Writing" intervention were provided with information in "frames" and taught to write informational passages using three text structures (i.e., simple description, compare/contrast, sequence). To do so, the students were taught a strategy for picking the topic and structure of their writing, organizing facts for the text structure, and writing the facts in paragraph form. They were also taught to include text structure features, including signal words, transition words, grouping similarities and differences, etc. At post-test, students who received the "Structures Writing" intervention statistically significantly outperformed the control group on researcher-created measures of simple description writing (d = 0.66), compare/contrast writing (d = 0.61), and sequence writing (d = 0.94). Results also indicate students in "Structures Writing" intervention condition statistically significantly outperformed the math-writing group on a measure of identifying text structures in reading passages (d = 0.94). No other statistically significant differences were found between the groups. The implications and future directions for the development of the "Structures Writing" intervention are discussed.

We investigated the extent to which working memory and behavioral attention predicted reading and listening comprehension in grades 1 through 3 and, whether their relative contributions differed by modality and grade. Separate grade samples (N = 370; ns = 125, 123, and 122 for grades 1, 2, and 3 respectively) completed multiple measures of word reading, working memory, and parallel measures of reading and listening comprehension. Teachers and parents provided behavioral attention ratings. Concurrently, working memory was more important for listening than for reading comprehension and predicted significant variance in both modalities across grades, after controlling for background measures and behavioral attention ratings. For both modalities, working memory explained the greatest proportion of variance in grade 3. Behavioral attention predicted variance in grades 1 and 2 for reading comprehension and all grades for listening comprehension. Subsidiary analyses demonstrated that the influence of working memory and behavioral attention on reading comprehension was indirect, through word reading and listening comprehension both concurrently and also longitudinally between grades 1-3. These findings indicate that delivery of classroom materials orally will not always be beneficial to the young beginner reader or one who struggles with word decoding, and that children with poor working memory/attention may require additional support to access meaning from both written and spoken text.

The purpose of this cross-sectional study, conducted with a random sample of 166 students with emotional disturbance (ED), was to establish, with attention to age and gender differences, the extent to which students with ED served in public school settings experience language skill deficits. This study also examined particular types of problem behaviors related to language skills. Students with ED showed moderate to large language deficits, which appeared to be more pronounced in the expressive language domain. The language deficits of a majority of the students were clinically significant. These language deficits appeared to be relatively stable across age and gender. Furthermore, externalizing behaviors were related to receptive and expressive language skills, whereas internalizing ones were not.

Comprehending expository reading material is a challenge for many students. Research has shown that students' expository reading comprehension can improve with the help of text structure instruction. The purpose of this article is to present teachers with a framework for effectively implementing text structure instruction in their classrooms. Within this framework, the authors suggest four possible learning objectives for text structure instruction. They then describe instructional strategies related to each objective and ways to assess whether the objectives were met. Finally, the authors discuss some issues to consider when choosing expository reading material for students and present text structure unit plans for grades 2 and 5 as examples of how teachers might construct a unit.

In this meta-analysis of 45 studies involving students in Grades 2-12, the authors present evidence on the effects of text structure instruction on the expository reading comprehension of students. The meta-analysis was deigned to answer 2 sets of questions. The first set of questions examined the effectiveness of text structure instruction on proximal measures of comprehension, including examination of potential moderators and effectiveness for students with or at-risk for disabilities. The second set of questions examined the effectiveness on transfer measures of the effectiveness of the intervention across temporal contexts (maintenance), near-contexts (untaught text structures), and far-contexts (general reading comprehension). Overall, the results indicated that text structure instruction improves expository reading comprehension, but the effects were tempered when text structure instruction was compared with stronger comparison groups. The findings also identified 2 moderators that led to increased effect sizes (teaching more text structures and including writing in the instruction). Text structure instruction was also found to be effective across all 3 levels of transfer, although the effects for far-transfer are small and lack consistency. Recommendations include conducting more research to understand the nuances of potential interactions between various instructional approaches and student populations.

A two-cohort cluster-randomized trial was conducted to estimate effects of small-group supplemental vocabulary instruction for at-risk kindergarten English learners (ELs). Connections students received explicit instruction in high-frequency decodable root words, and interactive book reading (IBR) students were taught the same words in a storybook reading context. A total of 324 EL students representing 24 home languages and averaging in the 10th percentile in receptive vocabulary completed the study (Connections n = 163 in 75 small groups; IBR n = 161 in 72 IBR small groups). Although small groups in both conditions made significant immediate gains across all measures, Connections students made significantly greater gains in reading vocabulary and decoding (d = 0.64 and 0.45, respectively). At first-grade follow-up, longer-term gains were again greater for Connections students, but with smaller effect sizes (d = 0.29 and 0.27, respectively). Results indicate that explicit Connections instruction features designed to build semantic, orthographic, and phonological connections for word learning were effective for improving proximal reading vocabulary and general decoding; however, increases in root word reading vocabulary did not transfer to general vocabulary knowledge.

Multi-tiered system of supports represents one of the most significant advancements in improving the outcomes of students for whom typical instruction is not effective. While many practices need to be in place to make multi-tiered systems of support effective, accurate implementation of evidence-based practices by individuals at all tiers is critical to obtain student outcomes. Effective strategies to achieve program fidelity are available; however, maintaining program fidelity at the individual level remains elusive. Lessons drawn from medicine indicate strategies to maintain program fidelity should address the implementer. Medical practitioners have used self-monitoring checklists to maintain fidelity with striking results. Research evaluating strategies to maintain program fidelity at the individual level represents an important next step in the field of education. Recommendations for a systematic research agenda focused on self-monitoring checklists are presented.

This systematic descriptive historical review was conducted to examine the status and trends in expository text structure instruction efficacy research for first through twelfth grade students. The analysis included sixty studies, which spanned the years 1978 to 2014. Descriptive dimensions of the research included study type, research design, treatment fidelity, school level, number of participants, service delivery settings, and comprehensiveness of demographic reporting, text structure instruction, and measurement. Researchers primarily used randomized and quasi-experimental research designs. Analysis of results revealed that (a) a relatively large number of text structure efficacy research studies have been conducted, (b) complete demographic information was difficult to ascertain for many of the participants, (c) researchers of few studies instructed students in all five expository text structures, (d) treatment fidelity data were often missing, and (e) researchers rarely used both direct and indirect measures of effects. Limitations of the analysis and future research directions are discussed.

In our previous research (Benner, Nelson, Sanders, & Ralston, 2012), elementary schools were randomly assigned to either a primary-level behavior intervention directed at externalizing behavior (treatment, n = 7 schools) or to business-as-usual condition (control, n = 6 schools). A screening procedure was used to identify K through 3-grade students who exhibited externalizing behavior. The results showed that treatment students (n = 44) exhibited lower levels of problem behavior (ES = -0.99) and higher rates of on-task behavior (ES = 0.61) compared to controls (n = 26). The results also suggested that individual baseline behavior and school context as measured by free and reduced-priced meal rates moderated the findings. Given this latter finding, our interest in the current study was to test whether individual and school aggregate baseline behavior levels moderate students' response to two years of the behavior intervention. Schools originally assigned to treatment continued to implement the intervention during the subsequent academic year; schools in the control condition continued with their business-as-usual behavior management approaches. During the winter of the second year, students who remained in their schools were re-assessed on their behavior (n = 35 and n = 19 in treatment and control conditions, respectively). Analyses involving multilevel context modeling showed that students with relatively high initial baseline behavior levels (pretreatment) were more responsive to the intervention if they were in schools with higher school aggregate baseline behavior levels. Conversely, students tended to be less responsive to intervention if they were in schools with lower school aggregate baseline behavior levels. Limitations and practical implications are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

This study examines the longer term effectiveness of a standard protocol, Tier 2 supplemental vocabulary intervention for kindergarten English learners, designed to develop root word vocabulary knowledge and reinforce beginning word reading skills. Participating students in the original study ("n" = 93 treatment, 92 control) received 20 weeks of small group instruction from paraeducator tutors during kindergarten. After attrition, students ("n" = 74 treatment, 66 control) were followed up midyear Grade 1 on English measures of proximal and distal vocabulary as well as word reading. At 6 months postintervention, the treatment benefits were maintained on all three outcomes, and furthermore, there was no evidence to suggest that early receptive vocabulary knowledge moderated longer term treatment effects. Results also showed kindergarten intervention year gains in proximal (i.e., root word) vocabulary uniquely predicted midyear Grade 1 distal vocabulary above and beyond kindergarten gains in distal vocabulary. Implications for English learner early intervention are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 3 notes.)

This article examined the efficacy of a primary-level, standard-protocol behavior intervention for students with externalizing behavioral disorders. Elementary schools were randomly assigned to treatment (behavior intervention) or control (business as usual) conditions, and K-3 students were screened for externalizing behavior risk status. The final sample included 7 treatment schools (n = 44 students) and 6 control schools (n = 26 students). Results of multilevel models showed that students with externalizing behavior in the treatment schools had significantly lower levels of problem behavior than those in the control schools. A positive but statistically nonsignificant treatment trend was observed for increased on-task behavior. No effects were observed for academic skills. The positive effects of the behavior intervention were smaller in schools serving higher proportions of students with low socioeconomic status and for students who had higher baseline levels of externalizing behavior. The discussion includes the results, practical importance, and limitations. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to test the efficacy of a Tier 2 standard protocol supplemental intervention designed simultaneously to develop root word vocabulary and reinforce decoding skills being taught to all students in the core beginning reading program with kindergarten Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs). Participating students were drawn from six public elementary schools in the Midwest. Within classrooms, students were randomly assigned to either the supplemental intervention (treatment) or the specified control condition (i.e., used to control for instructional time and consistency). All instruction in both conditions was delivered by paraeducator tutors and occurred in small groups for approximately 20 min a day, 5 days a week, for 20 weeks (October to April). At posttest, treatment students (n = 93) in the experimental condition significantly outperformed controls (n = 92) on a proximal (i.e., linked directly with the instructional focus of the intervention) measure of root word vocabulary (d = 1.04) and word reading (d = 0.69). Treatment students did not significantly outperform controls on a distal (i.e., not linked directly to the instructional focus of the intervention) measure of reading vocabulary (d = 0.38). The results, practical importance, and limitations are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

The findings of a best-evidence synthesis of the collateral effect of literacy instruction on the social adjustment of students are reported. The goal of the synthesis was to extend the work of Wanzek, Vaughn, Kim, and Cavanaugh (2006) by (a) reviewing treatment-outcomes conducted using group design methodology; (b) focusing on a more defined set of outcome measures; and (c) analyzing outcomes using average effect size estimates as a common metric. Results of the review suggest that effective literacy instruction does not appear to have a collateral effect on the social adjustment of children. Limitations and future directions are presented. (Contains 2 tables.)

The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which two specific elements of fidelity of implementation (i.e., adherence and quality of delivery) enhanced or constrained the effects of a reading intervention for middle school students experiencing reading difficulties. A total of 281 middle school students with reading difficulties received an intensive reading intervention (i.e., Corrective Reading Decoding strand) delivered by trained school staff (n = 21) at three middle schools. Although students receiving the Corrective Reading Decoding strand made statistically significant (p less than 0.001) improvements in their basic reading skills and passage comprehension overall, variations in student gains were found. Overall fidelity of implementation accounted for 22% and 18% of the variance in the gains in basic reading skills and passage comprehension of middle school students with reading difficulties, respectively (p less than 0.05). Two teacher actions, following the lesson format as designed and reteaching lessons when needed, predicted student basic reading and passage comprehension skills above and beyond other teacher actions (p less than 0.05). Results, implications, and limitations are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

The findings of a meta-analysis of the effect of reading instruction on the reading skills of students with or at risk of behavioral disorders (BD) are reported. The goal of the synthesis was to extend the work of Coleman and Vaughn by (a) detailing independent variables and outcome measures for each study, (b)including studies sampling from students with or at risk of BD, (c) analyzing study outcomes using average effect size estimates as a common metric, and (d) summarizing literature on reading interventions conducted with students with or at risk of BD over nearly four decades (from 1970 to present). Results of the review suggest that effective literacy instruction has a positive effect on the reading skills of students with or at risk of BD. Limitations and future directions are presented. (Contains 4 tables.)

The purpose of the current study was to test the efficacy of a supplemental phonological awareness focused intervention delivered by community-based paraeducators with preschool children (M = 4.73 years) in eight Head Start classrooms in the rural Midwest. Participating children were randomly assigned to small groups within classrooms, which were in turn were randomly assigned to receive either treatment or control (vocabulary-focused storybook reading) instruction in small groups for 20 min/day, 5 days/week, for 10 weeks (February-April). All instruction was delivered by community-based paraeducator tutors. At posttest, treatment students (n = 41) outperformed controls (n = 47) on measures of alphabetic knowledge (d = 1.22) and phonological awareness (d = 0.62). No significant differences between conditions were detected on print awareness or vocabulary. Overall, the results demonstrate that at-risk preschoolers benefit from community-based paraeducator implemented supplemental phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge instruction. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Within 3-tier behavioral models, universal interventions are expected to prevent the onset of problem behavior in a majority of children altogether and to sustain improvements in child outcomes by the selected and indicated interventions. A cohort longitudinal design was used to assess the extent to which a 3-tier model achieves these expected outcomes. The respective universal, selected, and indicated interventions included Behavior and Academic Support and Enhancement, First Step to Success, and MultiSystemic Therapy. A total of 407 children in Grades K-3 from 1 of 4 longitudinal cohorts participated. The results of 2-level linear growth analyses indicate that the 3-tier behavior model achieved the anticipated outcomes with respect to social behavior. The results, limitations, and implications are discussed. (Contains 2 figures and 6 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of four types of language disorders among public school students (N = 152) classified as Emotional Disturbance (ED). We also examined the association of the types of language disorders experienced by these students with specific learning disabilities and clinical levels of specific types of psychopathology. Nearly 66% of the students with ED experienced a language disorder, with combined receptive-expressive disorders being the most common (35.5%). Students with a language disorder, particularly combined receptive-expressive disorder, showed significantly poorer achievement and more learning disabilities (LD) in all areas compared to students with no language disorder. Furthermore, 91.3% of the students with any LD also had a language disorder. Types of language disorders were not significantly distinguished by psychopathology, although severity was serious in both students with and without a language disorder. These findings have implications for the identification and treatment of language disorders in students classified ED. (Contains 4 tables.)

Building on research showing the interdependence of language skills and reading proficiency, this study examined the effects of using the "Language Arts" strand of the "Reading Mastery Signature" 2008 series program as a supplement to non-Direct Instruction reading programs with English Language Learner (ELL) students. Seventy-six kindergarten through fifth-grade ELL students received the intensive intervention delivered by trained school staff (n = 5) at three elementary schools. Multiple classroom-based fidelity of implementation monitoring demonstrated that the Language Arts strand was well taught on a consistent basis by all teachers and paraprofessionals. Statistically significant gains were made in the word recognition, oral reading accuracy, silent reading comprehension, spelling, and word meaning percentile ranks of participants from pre- to posttest (p less than 0.01). Absolute change and effect size estimates (see Gresham, 2005) indicated reliable changes in the reading and language skills of participants. Results, implications, and future research priorities were discussed. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study describes the academic, social, and behavioral performance of elementary and secondary students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) receiving services in a self-contained school for students with serious behavior problems, with an emphasis on how school adjustment and problem behavior patterns predict academic performance. Results revealed that elementary and secondary group scores were well below the 25th percentile on reading, math, and written expression measures. Further, a seven variable model representing academic, social, and behavioral domains was able to differentiate between age groups explaining 54% of the variance and correctly classifying 78.26% (n = 18) of the elementary students and 84.21% (n = 16) of the secondary students. Findings also suggested that behavioral variables (e.g., school adjustment, externalizing, and internalizing) were predictive of broad reading and broad written expression scores, with school adjustment (a protective factor) accounting for the most variance in the three-variable model. Limitations and recommendations for future research are addressed.

The results from previous research suggest that there is a relatively small (albeit statistically significant) relationship between the externalizing behavior and academic skills of students with emotional disturbance (ED). Researchers have also found that the majority of these students have language deficits that hinder their academic performance. The purposes of this study were to investigate the mediating role of academic processing speed (i.e., academic fluency) on the relationship between: (a) The externalizing behavior and academic skills of K-12 students with ED; and (b) language skills and academic skills of students with ED. Results indicate that academic processing speed mediated the influence of both language skills and externalizing behavior on academic skills of this population. The findings, limitations, and implications were discussed.

Multinomial stepwise logistic regression analyses were used to establish the most robust set of risk factors that would best predict low basic reading skills (i.e., a standard score less than 85 on the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised Basic Reading Skills cluster) of kindergarten and first-grade children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Results showed that among the 11 risk factor domains considered, four were most predictive of low reading skills: demographic characteristics, childhood maladjustment, family functioning, and maternal depression. Within these four domains, the most robust set of individual risk factors were gender, history of psychiatric hospitalization, abusive to animals, and maternal depression. Results, limitations, and implications are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

This study examined the convergent validity of the parent and teacher versions of the Early Childhood Behavior Problem Screening Scale (ECBPSS) with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Caregiver-Teacher Report Form (C-TRF), respectively. Data were collected on a sample of preschool and kindergarten students (n = 149) from two medium-sized cities in the Midwest. Analyses of both the parent and teacher versions of the ECBPSS were correlated with the corresponding Internalizing, Externalizing, and Total Problem scale scores of the CBCL and the C-TRF. The present findings and future research directions and limitations are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

Secondary schools--be they middle schools or high schools--are reading-rich environments. Secondary schools provide contexts in which students must regularly read and write competently to demonstrate their literacy achievement. In any given semester, there are short stories and novels to read, comprehend, and analyze; civics and science texts whose content must be mastered; math problems that must be understood and then successfully solved; and even high-stakes tests that must be passed for advancement or graduation to take place. It is for these and other reasons that addressing the likely reading deficits of secondary students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) takes on urgency in middle and high school settings. In this article, the authors provide research-based and practical suggestions for secondary teachers who are faced with educating students with EBD. The authors briefly describe the reading skills of secondary students with EBD, reading research designed to improve these reading skills, and a theoretical framework from which to formulate classroom and schoolwide reading intervention for students with EBD. (Contains 2 figures.)

The primary purpose of this study was to assess the effects of contextually-based multiple meaning (i.e., words with multiple meanings) vocabulary instruction on the vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension of students. Third and 5th grade students received either contextually-based multiple meaning vocabulary instruction embedded in the standard language arts instruction offered to all students over a three-month period or the standard language arts instruction alone (i.e., non-specific treatment). Students who received the contextually-based multiple meaning instruction generally showed statistically and educationally significant gains in their vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension relative to students who did not. These gains were most evident in reading comprehension. Additionally, students with low initial vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension achievement tended to show greater gains than those with average to high achievement. These effects were more pronounced in the case of 3rd grade students. The results and limitations are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

Logistic regression analyses were used to establish the most robust set of risk factors that would best predict borderline/clinical levels of problem behavior (i.e., a t score at or above 60 on the Child Behavior Checklist Total Problem scale) of kindergarten and first-grade children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Results showed that among the 11 risk factor domains considered, 5 were most predictive of borderline/clinical levels of problem behavior: externalizing behavior pattern, internalizing behavior pattern, early childhood child maladjustment, family functioning, and maternal depression. Within these 5 domains, the most robust set of individual risk factors were difficult child (i.e., temperament, parent management skills, interaction between temperament and parent management skills), destroys own toys, and maternal depression. Results, limitations, future research, and implications are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

As prevention and early intervention opportunities for young children at risk of emotional disturbance (ED) increase, questions regarding the effectiveness of these programs for specific subpopulations of children have emerged. To date, few investigators have examined young children entering early school prevention/intervention programs to determine if clear subpopulations can be identified, and if so, which characteristics are most distinguishing. This study examined the risk factors of 140 kindergarten and first-grade students, identified by teachers as at risk of ED, to determine if distinct profiles exist. Cluster analysis procedures using teacher, child, and parent reports of family, academic, and social/emotional data revealed five distinct clusters: Parent nominated (n = 24), Elevated risks (n = 43), Primarily behavior (n = 25), Primarily academic (n = 27), and False positives (n = 21). Validation techniques revealed that the five clusters were distinguished by clear profiles, which differed across level of severity (i.e., high or low levels of risk per domain) and primary focus of risk (i.e., academic, social/emotional, or familial). Similarities and differences across cluster groups, possible implications for targeted prevention or early intervention programs, study limitations, and directions for future research are presented. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

There is growing interest in understanding the factors that influence the academic achievement of students with emotional disturbance (ED). Structural equation modeling was used to test the interrelationships among language skills, externalizing behavior, and academic fluency and their impact on the academic skills of students with ED. Results showed that language skills exerted a significant proximal effect and distal effect on academic skills. The effect of language skills was mediated through academic fluency (path coefficient = 0.389) but also had a proximal effect on academic skills (path coefficient = 0.359). However, externalizing behavior failed to have a statistically significant effect on language skills, academic fluency, or academic skills. Overall, fit indices suggested a marginally acceptable fit of the data. Results and implications are discussed.

A descriptive study of 22 students (K-10th grade) with emotional and behavioral disabilities (EBD) who were referred for functional behavioral assessment (FBA) revealed less on-task and more avoidant and inappropriate behaviors in comparison to classroom peers without EBD. Students who had been diagnosed as having attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and were taking psychotropic medications had higher levels of inappropriate behavior. However, sequential analysis showed that individual variation in teacher and peer attention as consequent events best predicted students' inappropriate behavior. These findings indicate that individual differences in the consequent events that purportedly maintain problem behavior are unique to the student, as proponents of FBA have suggested.