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The evolutionary history of maize (Zea mays subsp, mays) is of general interest because of its economic and scientific importance. Here we show that many cellular traits described previously in developing caryopses of maize are also seen in its wild progenitor teosinte (Zea mays subsp. purviglumis). These features, each with a possible role in development, include (1) an early programmed cell death in the maternal placento-chalazal (P-C) layer that may lead to increased hydrolytic conductance to the developing seed; (2) accumulation of phenolics and flavonoids in the P-C layer that may be related to antimicrobial activity; (3) formation of wall ingrowths in the basal endosperm transfer layer (BETL); (4) localization of cell wall invertase in the BETL, which is attributed to the increased transport capacity of photosynthates to the sink; and (5) endoreduplication in endosperm nuclei suggested to contribute to increased gene expression and greater sink capacity of the developing seed. In maize caryopsis, these cellular traits have been previously attributed to domestication and selection for larger seed size and vigor. Given the conservation of the entire cellular program in developing teosinte caryopses described here, we suggest that these traits evolved independently of domestication and predate human selection pressure. Key words: cell wall invertase; endoreduplication; genome size; maize; Poaceae; programmed cell death; teosinte; Zea mays subsp, parviglumis. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0900059

Plants can perceive a wide range of biotic attackers an respond with targeted induced defences. Specificity in plant non-self-recognition occurs either directly by perception of pest-derived elicitors or indirectly through resistance protein recognition of host targets that are inappropriately with pathogens, yet evidence for analogous events mediating the detection of insect herbivores remains elusive. Here we report indirect perception of herbivory in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) plants attacked by fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) larvae. We isolated and identified a disulfide-bridged peptide ([sup.+][ICDINGVCVDA.sup.-], termed inceptin, from S. frugiperda larval oral secretions that promotes cowpea ethylene production at 1 fmol [leaf.sup.-1] and triggers increases in the defense-related phytohormones salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. Inceptins are proteolytic fragments of chloroplastic ATP synthase [gamma]-subunit regulatory regions that mediate plant perception of herbivory through the induction of volatile, phenylpropanoid, and protease inhibitor defenses. Only S. frugiperda larvae that previously ingested chloroplastic ATP synthase [gamma]-subunit proteins and produced inceptins significantly induced cowpea defenses after herbivory. Digestive fragments of an ancient and essential plant enzyme, inceptin functions as a potent indirect signal initiating specific plant responses to insect attack. elicitor | guard hypothesis | indirect perception | insect herbivory | plant defense

We show here that a cell-wall invertase encoded by the Incw1 gene is regulated at both the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels by sugars in a heterotrophic cell suspension culture of maize. The Incw1 gene encoded two transcripts: Incw1-S (small) and Incw1-L (large); the size variation was attributable to different lengths in the 3[prime] untranslated region. Both metabolizable and nonmetabolizable sugars induced Incw1-L RNA apparently by default. However, only the metabolizable sugars, sucrose and D-glucose, were associated with the increased steady-state abundance of Incw1-S RNA, the concomitant increased levels of INCW1 protein and enzyme activity, and the downstream metabolic repression of the sucrose synthase gene, Sh1. Conversely, nonmetabolizable sugars, including the two glucose analogs 3-O-methylglucose and 2-deoxyglucose, induced greater steady-state levels of the Incw1-L RNA, but this increase did not lead to either an increase in the levels of the INCW1 protein/enzyme activity or the repression of the Sh1 gene. We conclude that sugar sensing and the induction of the Incw1 gene is independent of the hexokinase pathway. More importantly, our results also suggest that the 3[prime] untranslated region of the Incw1 gene acts as a regulatory sensor of carbon starvation and may constitute a link between sink metabolism and cellular translation in plants.