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The purpose of this study was to determine the difference in 40-yd dash and proagility times performed on field turf (FT) and natural grass (NG). Red-shirt freshmen National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II college football players (n = 24) performed 2 trials each of a 40-yd dash and proagility run on each surface. Sprints were timed by an electronic timing system (ET) and by 2 hand timers (HTs). Agility was timed on each surface by 2 HTs. There was no significant difference in 40-yd dash times between FT and NG using ET (FT: 5.34 [+ or -] 0.30 seconds, NG: 5.33 [+ or -] 0.33 seconds) or HT (FT: 5.06 [+ or -] 0.31 seconds, NG: 5.11 [+ or -] 0.29 seconds). Hand timer 40-yd dashes were significantly faster than ET 40-yd dashes on both surfaces, with the difference between HT and ET on FT (-0.28 [+ or -] 0.11 seconds) significantly greater than the difference on NG (-0.22 [+ or -] 0.06 seconds). The time differences between surfaces were significantly correlated (r = 0.12, p = 0.56). Proagility times were significantly faster on FT (4.49 [+ or -] 0.28 seconds) than on grass (4.64 [+ or -] 0.33 seconds). Thus, it appears that straight-ahead sprint speed is similar between FT and NG, but change-of-direction speed may be significantly faster on FT. KEY WORDS artificial playing surface, electronic timing, hand timing; change of direction

Brughelli, M, Cronin, J, Mendiguchia, J, Kinsella, D, and Nosaka, K. Contralateral leg deficits in kinetic and kinematic variables during running in Australian rules football players with previous hamstring injuries. J Strength Cond Res 24(9): 2539-2544, 2010--Contralateral leg deficits between lower limbs during athletic movements are thought to increase the risk of injury and compromise performance. The purpose of this study was to quantify the magnitude of leg deficits during running in noninjured and previously injured Australian Rules football (ARF) players. The players included a group of noninjured ARF players (n = 11) and a group of previously injured ARF players (n = 11; hamstring injuries only). The players in the injured group (IG) had at least 1 acute hamstring injury in the previous 2 years. The legs of the noninjured players (NIG) were classified as right and left, whereas the legs of the injured players were classified as injured or noninjured. The players ran on a nonmotorized force treadmill at approximately 80% of their maximum velocity (Vmax). For the NIG, there were no significant differences between right and left legs for any of the variables. For the IG, the only variable that was significantly (p < 0.001) different between the injured and noninjured leg was horizontal force (175 [+ or -] 30 vs. 326 [+ or -] 44 N). Furthermore, horizontal force was significantly greater in the noninjured leg (IG) in comparison with either legs in the NIG (19.2% and 20.5%) and significantly less in the injured leg (IG) in comparison with either legs of the NIG (31.5% and 32.7%). In the present study, athletes with previous hamstring injuries had contralateral leg deficits in horizontal but not vertical force during running at submaximal velocities. KEY WORDS muscle strains, horizontal force, transfer of power, bi-articulate muscles, limb imbalances

Castagna, C and Barbero Alvarez, JC. Physiological demands of an intermittent futsal-oriented high-intensity test. J Strength Cond Res 24(9): 2322-2329, 2010--The aim of this study was to provide evidence for specific physiological demands of a futsal time-motion analysis devised progressive and intermittent shuttle-running test (futsal intermittent endurance test [FIET]). Eighteen full-time professional futsal players (age 20.6 [+ or -] 3.1 years, body mass 71.6 [+ or -] 8.5 kg, height 175 [+ or -] 7.9 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. In a random order and on separate days, they performed the FIET and a treadmill test (TM) to assess aerobic fitness. Physiological demands were examined by monitoring exercise heart rates (HRs), [[??]o.sub.2], and blood-lactate concentration ([B.sub.Lac]) during FIET and TM conditions. During the FIET, players covered 1,464 [+ or -] 136 m attaining a mean speed at exhaustion of 16.5 [+ or -] 0.6 km x [h.sup.1]. The mean FIET duration was of 13.24 [+ or -] 1.13 minutes. Peak [[??]o.sub.2], HR, and [B.sub.Lac] were 95 [+ or -] 6.4, 99 [+ or -] 2, and 108 [+ or -] 25% of treadmill [??][o.sub.2] max, HRmax, and [B.sub.Lac], respectively. Large correlations were found between speed at ventilatory threshold and maximal speed at [[??]o.sub.2]max with FIET performance (r = 0.60 and 0.61, p < 0.01, respectively). Peak [[??]o.sub.2] during the FIET was significantly lower than [[??]o.sub.2]max. Although there was no mean difference between peak exercise HR in the TM and FIET conditions, significant intraindividual bias was evident. This study showed that FIET heavily stresses both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to a level that is similar to what was reported in futsal game play. Coaches may use the FIET to examine futsal players' ability to cope with intermittent high-intensity exercise. It is suggested that the highest HR found during the FIET should be regarded as peak HR and not as individual HRmax. KEY WORDS fitness, aerobic pathway, anaerobic energy, team sports, ball games

Stodden, DF and Galitski, HM. Longitudinal effects of a collegiate strength and conditioning program in American football. J Strength Cond Res 24(9): 2300-2308, 2010--The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal effects of a strength and conditioning program on selected body composition and performance data over 4 consecutive years of training. Body mass, percent body fat, lean body mass, proagility (18.3 m shuttle), 36.6-m (40-yd) sprint, bench press, chin-ups, vertical jump, and power index data for 84 National Collegiate Athletic Association division IA collegiate football players were examined. In addition to examining data on all athletes, data were analyzed on specific groups categorized by position. Groups were categorized as (a) skill (wide receivers, defensive backs, and running backs), (b) big skill (linebackers, kickers, tight ends, quarterbacks, and specialists), and (c) line (offensive and defensive linemen). Data on each individual performance criteria were analyzed using pairwise t-tests to indicate changes from year to year. Results for all participants showed that the greatest number of significant improvements among test parameters occurred during the first year of training. Years 2-4 of training demonstrated inconsistent improvement among the test parameters. Bench press performance significantly improved throughout 4 years of training among all participants. Data analysis from specific position groups also revealed the greatest number of significant improvements occurred during the first year of training. Overall, the results of this study clearly demonstrate that the greatest rate of improvement in the selected performance parameters occurred during the initial year of the strength and conditioning program. This study provides valuable information for coaches to establish appropriate progression and program variation guidelines for athletes over consecutive years of training. KEY WORDS lean body mass, power index, strength training

Thompson, B J, Smith, DB, Jacobson, BH, Fiddler, RE, Warren, A J, Long, BC, O'Brien, MS, Everett, KL, Glass, RG, and Ryan, ED. The influence of ratio and allometric scaling procedures for normalizing uppper body power output in division I collegiate football players. J Strength Cond Res 24(9): 2269-2273, 2010-The purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in upper body power output among lineman and nonlineman division I collegiate football players and to examine the influence of 2 normalization procedures: (a) simple ratio scaling and (b) standardized allometric scaling. Ten lineman (mean [+ or -] SD: age = 19.3 [+ or -] 1.6 years; height = 187.7 [+ or -] 4.7 cm; mass = 127.7 [+ or -] 13.3 kg) and 14 nonlineman (19.6 [+ or -] 1.4 years; 181.8 [+ or -] 5.2 cm; 92.3 [+ or -] 10.6 kg) performed a multiple repetition bench press power test at 50% of their 1 repetition maximum. Peak power (PP) was determined from a Tendo weightlifting analyzer that was attached to the barbell. The PP values were then analyzed under 3 conditions that included: (a) no scaling (absolute values), (b) ratio scaling (PP body [mass.sup.-1]), and (c) allometric scaling (PP body [mass.sup.-067]). The results indicated that the larger lineman demonstrated greater absolute PP values (p = 0.02); however, ratio scaling favored the smaller nonlineman group (p = 0.04). There were no differences in PP values between positions after the standardized allometric scaling procedure (p = 0.60). These findings indicated that the standardized allometric scaling procedure may be a more effective method for normalizing PP values among elite division I collegiate football players.

The purpose of this study was to examine physical and performance differences between grade levels and playing positions within High-School football players. Two thousand three hundred and twenty-seven athletes were tested for height, weight, 40-yd sprint time, proagility time, and vertical jump height. Mean scores across age groups and playing positions were compared using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and 1-way ANOVAs. The results indicate that defensive players in the 11th and 12th grades were significantly faster in the 40-yd sprint, quicker in the proagility, and generated more power than 9th and 10th grade defensive players across all positions (p < 0.05). Similarly, offensive players in the 11th and 12th grades were significantly faster, quicker, and jumped higher than did football players in lower grades (p < 0.05). Overall, these data suggest that there are distinct differences in the physical and performance characteristics of high-school football players. The greatest difference is observed between the sophomore and junior years. Older, more mature athletes are faster, quicker, and capable of generating more power than younger athletes. Practically, these data lend support to the common 3-tiered approach (i.e., Freshman, Junior Varsity, and Varsity) most high schools use for their football programs. This approach is likely indicated to allow for physical maturation of young players and to allow time for the development of strength, power, speed, and agility necessary to compete with older players. KEY WORDS strength, power, speed, athletes, assessment

Autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise (APRE) is a method by which athletes increase strength by progressing at their own pace based on daily and weekly variations in performance, unlike traditional linear periodization (LP), where there is a set increase in intensity from week to week. This study examined whether 6 weeks of APRE was more effective at improving strength compared with traditional LP in division I College football players. We compared 23 division 1 collegiate football players (2.65 [+ or -] 0.8 training years) who were trained using either APRE (n = 12) or LP (n = 11) during 6 weeks of preseason training in 2 separate years. After 6 weeks of training, improvements in total bench press 1 repetition maximum (1RM), squat 1RM, and repeated 225-1b bench press repetitions were compared between the APRE and LP protocol groups. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to determine differences between groups. Statistical significance was accepted at p [less than or equal to] 0.05. Autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise demonstrated greater improvement in 1RM bench press strength (APRE: 93.4 [+ or -] 103 N vs. LP: -0.40 [+ or -] 49.6 N; ANCOVA: F= 7.1, p = 0.02), estimated 1RM squat strength (APRE: 192.7 [+ or -] 199 N vs. LP: 37.2 [+ or -] 155 N; ANOVA: F= 4.1, p = 0.05) and the number of repetitions performed at a weight of 225 lb (APRE: 3.17 [+ or -] 2.86 vs. LP: -0.09 [+ or -] 2.40 repetitions; ANCOVA: F= 6.8, p = 0.02) compared with the LP group over the 6-week training period. Our findings indicate that the APRE was more effective than the LP means of programming in increasing the bench press and squat over a period of 6 weeks. KEY WORDS resistance training, strength and conditioning, football

Gaelic Football is the main sport in Ireland and has potential for use as a means of fitness in health promotion contexts. The present study entailed a cross-sectional comparison of performances in a motor test battery between elite female players and an age-matched reference group. The aim was to identify the fitness items that characterize top performers in the game. Altogether, 83 women aged 18-29 participated in the study and completed a series of tests consisting of 8 items in the Eurofit Test Battery. The profiles of the 2 groups were subjected to logistic regression analysis. Four of the test items contributed to group discrimination (endurance, flexibility, trunk strength, and limb speed). Based on percentage difference, the most prominent discriminator was the estimated V[O.sub.2]max (mean 49.9 [+ or -] 4.2 vs. 39.7 [+ or -] 6.3 ml x [kg.sup.-1] x [min.sup.-1]). Grip strength and agility were also significantly superior in the Gaelic Football players (p < 0.05), who had significantly lower body fat values (23.3 [+ or -] 2.3%) than the reference group (27.2 [+ or -] 3.6%). The use of the Eurofit Test battery in games players was confirmed as were the multifactorial requirements of fitness for women playing this sport. It was concluded that elite Gaelic Football at top lever is characterized mainly by high aerobic fitness, but a holistic training program is needed to cover the multiple fitness requirements of the game. Practical applications include the use of this game for health-related purposes. KEY WORDS aerobic performance, balance, logistic regression, endurance, strength tests

The purpose of this study was to compare existing 1 repetition maximum (1RM) bench press prediction equations in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division IA college football players and determine if the error associated with the prediction of 1RM bench press from the National Football League (NFL)-225 test could be reduced through the addition of anthropometric measurements. Anthropometric measures, 1RM bench press, NFL-225 test repetitions to fatigue, and body composition data were collected on 87 Division IA football players (mean [+ or -] SD age 19.9 [+ or -] 1.3 years; height 182.3 [+ or -] 7.3 cm; body mass 102.3 [+ or -] 21.1 kg; % fat 13.9 [+ or -] 6.7; 1RM bench press 140.5 [+ or -] 2 6.6 kg; and NFL-225 reps to fatigue 14.1 [+ or -] 8.0). Hierarchical regression revealed an [R.sup.2] = 0.87 when predicting 1RM from the NFL-225 test alone, which improved to [R.sup.2] = 0.90 with the addition of the anthropometric variables: arm circumference and arm length. The following equation was the best performing model to predict 1RM bench press: 1RM (lb) = 299.08 + 2.47 arm circumference (cm) - 4.60 arm length (cm) + 5.84 reps @ 225; SEE = 18.3 lb). This equation predicted 43.7% of subjects' within [+ or -] 10 lb of their actual 1RM bench press. Using a crossvalidation group, the equation resulted in estimates of 1RM which were not significantly different than the actual 1RM. Because of the variability that has been shown to be associated with 1RM prediction equations, the use of actual 1RM testing is recommended when this is a critical variable. However, coaches, scouts, and athletes, who choose to estimate 1RM bench press using repetitions to failure from the NFL-225 test, may benefit from the use of the equations developed in this study to estimate 1RM bench press with the inclusion of simple anthropometric measurements. KEY WORDS bench press, strength, weight lifting, exercise, prediction equations, muscular endurance

The purpose of this study was to determine the difference between hand and electronic timing of 40-yd dashes in college football players. National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II players (n = 59) were measured during a 40-yd sprint by electronic timing and simultaneously by 7 experienced hand timers using digital stopwatches. Electronic times were initiated by lifting the hand from a switch mat and stopped by the torso passing through an infrared beam. Hand timers initiated timing on first movement of the player from a 3-point stance. To establish performance and timing reliabilities, 32 players completed a second trial. Interrater reliability for hand timing was intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.987 (p < 0.001). Five of the 7 timers did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) in their timing. The maximum difference among the hand timers on any given trial was 0.19 [+ or -] 0.14 seconds, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of -0.08 to 0.41 seconds. Hand timing (4.85 [+ or -] 0.28 seconds) was significantly faster (p < 0.001) than electronic timing (5.16 [+ or -] 0.28 seconds), producing an average difference of 0.31 [+ or -] 0.07 seconds (6.0 [+ pr -] 1.3%) and a 95% CI on the average difference of 0.44 to 0.18 seconds. The correlation between electronic timing and hand timing was ICC = 0.985 (p < 0.001). Practically speaking, electronic timing produces the best measurement of 40-yd dash speed, and using the hand timing produces consistently but significantly faster times. KEY WORDS sprint timing, sprinting, reliability

The purpose of this study was to assess changes in upper-body muscular strength and work capacity following off-season resistance training and the resultant effect on prediction of muscular strength (1 repetition maximum, or 1 RM). National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division II football players (n = 58) were divided into low-strength (LS, 1RM 85% 1RM) than at higher repetitions (>6RM, [less than or equal to] 80% 1RM) at both pre-and post-training. In conclusion, changes in muscular strength associated with the off-season training program used herein appear to have little effect on work capacity or prediction of 1RM using submaximal loads. For repetition predictions to accurately track changes following resistance training, the test load must be relatively high (>85% 1RM) and the repetitions low ([less than or equal to] 5 reps). KEY WORDS off-season conditioning, performance evaluation, bench press

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between maximal squat strength and sprinting times. Seventeen Division I-AA male football athletes (height = 1.78 [+ or -] 0.04 m, body mass [BM] = 85.9 [+ or -] 8.8 kg, body mass index [BMI] = 27.0 [+ or -] 2.6 kg/[m.sup.2], 1 repetition maximum [1RM] = 166.5 [+ or -] 34.1 kg, 1RM/BM = 1.94 [+ or -] 0.33) participated in this investigation. Height, weight, and squat strength (1RM) were assessed on day 1. Within 1 week, 5, 10, and 40 yard sprint times were assessed. Squats were performed to a 70[degrees] knee angle and values expressed relative to each subject's BM. Sprints were performed on a standard outdoor track surface with timing gates placed at the previously mentioned distances. Statistically significant (p [less than or equal to] 0.05) correlations were found between squat 1 RM/BM and 40 yard sprint times (r = -0.605, p = 0.010, power = 0.747) and 10 yard sprint times (r = -0.544, p = 0.024, power = 0.626). The correlation approached significance between 5 yard sprint times and 1RM/BM (r = -0.4502, p = 0.0698, power = 0.4421). Subjects were then divided into those above 1RM/BM of 2.10 and below 1RM/BM of 1.90. Subjects with a 1RM/BM above 2.10 had statistically significantly lower sprint times at 10 and 40 yards in comparison with those subjects with a 1RM/BM ratio below 1.90. This investigation provides additional evidence of the possible importance of maximal squat strength relative to BM concerning sprinting capabilities in competitive athletes. KEY WORDS power, running, football, athletes

Research suggests that caffeine may improve performance in aerobic exercise; the evidence for anaerobic performance is mixed. This study examined the effect of caffeine (5 mg/kg body weight [BW]) vs. placebo on performance-based anaerobic exercise tests used during the National Football League (NFL) Combine. Collegiate football athletes (n = 17; 20 [+ or -] 2 yr; body mass index 29.4 [+ or -] 3.6 kg/[m.sup.2]) completed 2 study visits, 1 week apart. Participants were low caffeine users with a reported average intake of 16 [+ or -] 20 mg/day. On the day of testing, participants ingested a caffeinated (5 mg/ kg BW caffeine + 0.125 g/kg BW carbohydrate) or placebo (0.125 g/kg BW carbohydrate) beverage, ate a light meal, and completed 3 exercise tests (40-yard dash, 20-yard shuttle, and a bench press) 60 minutes later. Borg's rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded after each exercise test. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) were monitored (pre-exercise and postexercise). Data were analyzed using paired t-tests, Wilcoxon signed rank test, and repeated measures analysis of variance. No significant differences were found between treatments for the exercise tests (40-yard dash: 5.01 [+ or -] 0.25 vs. 5.03 [+ or -] 0.26 s, p = 0.43; 20-yard shuttle: 4.64 [+ or -] 0.19 vs. 4.66 [+ or -] 0.24 s, p = 0.51; bench press: 17 [+ or -] 8 vs. 17 [+ or -] 8 reps, p = 0.51; caffeine vs. placebo, respectively). However, 59% of the participants improved in performance with the caffeine during the bench press and the 40-yard dash. No differences were found between treatments for RPE, HR, and BP. Caffeine did not improve performance for anaerobic exercise tests used at the NFL Combine in caffeine naive male football athletes. KEY WORDS field tests, bench press, 40-yard dash, 20-yard shuttle

This study investigated the thermoregulatory responses and match running performance of elite team sport competitors (Australian Rules football) during preseason games in a warm environment. During 2 games in dry bulb temperatures above 29[degrees]C (>27[degrees]C wet bulb globe temperature), 10 players were monitored for core temperature ([T.sub.core]) via a telemetric capsule, in-game motion patterns, blood lactate ([[La.sup.-]]), body mass changes, urine specific gravity, and pre-and postgame vertical jump performance. The results showed that peak [T.sub.core] was achieved during the final quarter at 39.3 [+ or -] 0.7[degrees]c and that several players reached values near 40.0[degrees]C. Further, the largest proportion of the total rise in [T.sub.core] (2.1 [+ or -] 0.7[degrees]C) occurred during the first quarter of the match, with only small increases during the remainder of the game. The game distance covered was 9.4 [+ or -] 1.5 km, of which 2.7 [+ or -] 0.9 km was at high-intensity speeds (>14.4 km x [h.sup.-1]). The rise in [T.sub.core] was correlated with first-quarter high-intensity running velocity (r = 0.72) and moderate-intensity velocity (r = 0.68), second-quarter [T.sub.core]and low-intensity activity velocity (r = 0.90), second-quarter [T.sub.core] and moderate-intensity velocity (r = 0.88), fourth-quarter rise in [T.sub.core] and very-high-intensity running distance (r = 0.70), and fourth-quarter [T.sub.core] and moderate-intensity velocity (r = 0.73). Additional results included mean game [[La.sup.-]] values of 8.7 [+ or -] 0.1 mmol x [L.sup.-1], change in body mass of 2.1 [+ or -] 0.8 kg, and no change (p > 0.05) in pre- to postgame vertical jump. These findings indicate that the plateau in [T.sub.core] may be regulated by the reduction in low intensity activity and that pacing strategies may be employed during competitive team sports in the heat to ensure control of the internal heat load. KEY WORDS core temperature, motion analysis, team sport perfOrmance, heat

Research supports the use of preactivity warm-up and stretching, and the purpose of this study was to determine whether college football programs follow these guidelines. Questionnaires designed to gather demographic, professional, and educational information, as well as specific pre-and postactivity practices, were distributed via e-mail to midwestern collegiate programs from NCAA Division I and III conferences. Twenty-three male coaches (12 from Division IA schools and 11 from Division III schools) participated in the study. Division I schools employed certified strength coaches (CSCS; 100%), whereas Division III schools used mainly strength coordinators (73%), with only 25% CSCS. All programs used preactivity warm-up, with the majority employing 2-5 minutes of sport-specific jogging/ running drills. Pre stretching (5-10 minutes) was performed in 19 programs (91%), with 2 (9%) performing no pre stretching. Thirteen respondents used a combination of static/proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation/ballistic and dynamic flexibility, 5 used only dynamic flexibility, and 1 used only static stretching. All 12 Division I coaches used stretching, whereas only 9 of the 11 Division III coaches did (p = 0.22). The results indicate that younger coaches did not use pre stretching (p = 0.30). The majority of the coaches indicated that they did use post stretching, with 11 of the 12 Division I coaches using stretching, whereas only 5 of the 11 Division III coaches used stretching postactivity (p = 0.027). Divisional results show that the majority of Division I coaches use static-style stretching (p = 0.049). The results of this study indicate that divisional status, age, and certification may influence how well research guidelines are followed. Further research is needed to delineate how these factors affect coaching decisions. KEY WORDS warm-up, stretching, flexibility, football

Ponderal somatograms assessed body composition in four groups of Division III collegiate football players: offensive line (OL), defensive line (DL), offensive backs (OB), and defensive backs (DB). Ponderal somatograms evaluate body size and shape by converting muscular (shoulders, chest, biceps, forearm, thigh, and calf) and nonmuscular (abdomen, hips, knee, ankle, and wrist) girths into ponderal equivalent (PE) values. Anthropometric measurements, including stature, body mass, girths, and percent body fat by densitometry were collected in 82 players (22 OL, 12 DL, 20 OB, and 28 DB) during preseason camp. PE values were calculated for each girth as PE, kilograms = [(girth, cm / k).sup.2] x stature, decimeters, where k = k constant from Behnke's reference man. PE values were compared to body mass to indicate overdevelopment (PE > body mass) and underdevelopment (PE < body mass). OL was significantly heavier than DL (+15.6 kg), OB (+25.2 kg), and DB (+22.4 kg). OL percent fat was significantly greater than DL (+5.9%), OB (+9.0%), and DB (+9.3%). Similar differences occurred in girths and PE values by position. Muscular components were generally overdeveloped, with the greatest overdevelopment in the biceps (OL + 16.0 kg, DL + 19 kg, OB + 14.2 kg, and DB + 16.2 kg). Nonmuscular abdomen, hips, and knee were generally overdeveloped, with the greatest overdevelopment in the OL abdomen (+19.3 kg). Nonmuscular ankle and wrist were underdeveloped. Ponderal somatograms provide a relatively quick and simple method to translate girth measurements into ponderal equivalent values that seem to be position-specific among offensive and defensive linemen and backs. Somatograms provide an appraisal of body composition that helps coaches and athletes monitor the effectiveness of strength and conditioning programs. KEY WORDS body composition, anthropometry, body profile.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of a 7-week heavy elastic band and weighted-chain program on maximum muscular strength and maximum power in the bench press exercise. Thirty-six (n = 36) healthy men aged 18-30 years old, from the Robert Morris University football team, volunteered to participate in this study. During the first week, predicted 1 repetition maximum (1RM) bench press and a 5RM speed bench press tests were conducted. Subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups (n = 12): elastic band (EB), weighted chain (WC), and traditional bench (C). During weeks 2-8 of the study, subjects were required to follow the prescribed resistance training program. Mean and SD of the predicted 1RM bench press and 5RM speed bench press were computed. A two-factor (method X time) analysis was applied to identify significant differences between the training groups. Significance was set at [alpha] = 0.05. Results indicated a significant time (p < 0.05) but no group effect for both predicted 1RM (kg) and 5RM peak power tests (watts). A]though not significant, results did show greater nonsignificant improvements in the EB (848-883 W) and WC groups (856-878 W) vs. control (918-928 W) when the 2 highest and greatest values were selected regarding peak power. The use of EB and WC in conjunction with a general offseason strength and conditioning program can increase overall maximum upper-body strength in a sample of Division 1-AA football players. These types of training modalities add a unique training style and more flexibility with respect to exercise prescription for athletes and strength practitioners. KEY WORDS accommodating resistance, eccentric training, peak velocity.

This study investigated kinematic and kinetic variable changes in the power snatch (PS) after 4 weeks of training and the use of summary feedback. Twenty-four collegiate football players participated as subjects in this study. The subjects were pretested for their 1-repetition maximum (1RM) and were separated into feedback (FG; n = 12) and control (CG; n = 12) groups. The FG was provided with augmented feedback (AF) during power snatch training sessions, which took place 3 times per week for 4 weeks. The AF is defined as information that is received in addition to what is naturally available. Variables measured include peak force (PF), peak power (PP), and several kinematic variables at 50, 70, and 90% of the subjects' pre-1RM. The PF was improved at 50% 1RM from 567 [+ or 1] 202 to 769 [+ or -] 230 N, at 70% from 725 [+ or -] 186 to 890 [+ or -] 199 N, and at 90% from 822 [+ or -] 197 to 1008 [+ or -] 201 N in the FG (p [less than or equal to] 0.05). The PP was increased at 50% 1RM from 2061 [+ or -] 562 to 2538 [+ or -] 498 W, at 70% from 2321 [+ or -] 743 to 2754 [+ or -] 629 W, and at 90% from 2076 [+ or -] 437 to 2491 [+ or -] 526 W in the FG (p [less than or equal to] 0.05). Variables with respect to bar path kinematics improved significantly. No improvements in kinetics or kinematics were noted in the CG. These results indicate that both kinematic and kinetic variables improve through training and AF. Practitioners wishing to improve weightlifting performance should attempt to use evidence-based AF. KEY WORDS feedback, peak power, technique, weight lifting

The vertical jump is a performance test commonly used to assess explosive power and predict athletic ability. Typically, the vertical jump is performed with a countermovement from a stationary stance. We hypothesized that taking a quick step back before initiating the jump, known as the drop-step technique, would result in a higher vertical jump. The purpose of this study was to compare countermovement vertical jumps (CMJs) done from the stationary-stance position to CMJs performed with the drop-step with trained athletes. NCAA Division I football players (N = 56) performed 3 trials each of stationary-stance and drop-step CMJs in a random order. A paired t test revealed that a significantly (p < 0.01) higher jump height was achieved with the drop-step CMJ (69.3 [+ or -] 8.0 cm) compared to the stationary-stance CMJ (66.5 [+ or -] 8.0 cm). The 2 jump conditions were highly related (r = 0.95), and the rank order of the athletes tended to be similar from 1 condition to the other (p = 0.94). Trial-to-trial reliability was similar for each condition (coefficient of variation [CV] = 3.5% stationary stance; CV = 4.1% drop step). It is important to standardize CMJ testing procedures because a significant difference in the height achieved exists between the stationary-stance and drop-step techniques. KEY WORDS athletics, performance, testing, reliability, power

The authors were aware of no published studies in which the performance characteristics of first-year National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate football players were reported. From 2003 to 2006, 73 freshman and 12 transfer football recruits were tested before twice-a-day practices for bench press (BP), squat (SQ), power clean (PC), vertical jump (VJ), calculated jump power (CP), treadmill endurance capacity ([Vo.sub.2]peak), and maximal treadmill time (MTT). Individuals were grouped by player position for descriptive statistical analysis. As a group, offensive linemen (OL), defensive linemen (DL), linebackers (LB), tight ends (TE), and running backs (RB) averaged 152.8 kg for BP, 210.5 kg for SQ, 127.3 kg for PC, and 224.2 W for CP. These values were 22% to 30% higher than those for quarterbacks (QB), wide receivers (WR), defensive backs (DB), and kickers (K), who together averaged 120.2 kg for BP, 163.4 kg for SQ, 104.6 kg for PC, and 172.4 W for CP. Quarterbacks, WR, DB, and K as a group showed the highest M'IT (13:13 m*[s.sup.-1]) and [Vo.sub.2]peak values (47.24 mL*[kg.sup.-1]*[min.sup.-1]), 15% to 20% higher than those for OL, DL, LB, RB, and TE, who averaged 11:27 m*[s.sup.-1] for MTT and 39.51 mL*[kg.sup.-1]*[min.sup.-1] for [Vo.sub.2]peak. Running backs, TE, LB, DB, and WIR averaged 82.56 cm for VJ, which was 14% higher than that for DL, QB, K, and OL, who averaged 72.72 cm. On the basis of average resting blood pressure, 23.5% (20 players) were categorized as hypertensive (i.e., [greater than or equal to] 140/90 mm Hg), 54% (46 players) as prehypertensive (i.e., 120-139/80-89 mm Hg), and 22.5% (19 players) as normal (i.e., KEY WORDS speed, strength, endurance, power, freshman, hypertension

The aim of this study was to design a simple field test to measure the anaerobic endurance fitness of rugby league players, which is an important fitness quality in the game of rugby league. Twelve amateur football players with a mean ([+ or -]SD) age of 21.5 years ([+ or -]2.2) volunteered to participate in the study. The subjects completed 1 trial of the Wingate 60-second (W60) cycle test and 2 trials of the new Triple-120 meter shuttle (T120S) test. All trials were completed 4 days apart. The validity of the T1 20S was determined by comparing physiological responses (heart rate and blood lactate) and rating of perceived exertion to the all-out W60 cycle test. The results indicate there is a significant relationship between maximum heart rate (r = 0.63 and 0.71) for the 2 trials of the T120S and the W60 cycle test. There was no significant relationship between the 2 trials and the W60 cycle test for post 3 minute lactate (r = 0.112 and 0.101) and rating of perceived exertion (r = 0.94 and 0.161). However, the T120S test elicited greater mean values for these measures than the W60 cycle test. The results indicate that the T120S is a valid test of anaerobic endurance and represents a sports specific test of this quality that may provide useful information for players and coaches involved in the sport of rugby league. KEY WORDS field test, heart rate, lactate, rating of percieved exertion

This study investigated the influence of fatigue on tackling technique in rugby league players and determined the relationship between selected physiological capacities and fatigue-induced decrements in tackling technique. Eight rugby league players underwent a standardized one-on-one tackling drill in a 10-m grid. Players performed the one-on-one tackling drill before strenuous exercise and following game-specific repeated-effort exercise of progressively increasing intensities (corresponding to moderate, heavy, and very heavy intensity) in order to induce fatigue that was representative of match conditions. Video footage was taken from the rear, side, and front of the defending player. Tackling technique was objectively assessed using standardized technical criteria. In addition, all players underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of 7 skinfold measurements), speed (10-, 20-, and 40-m sprint), muscular power (vertical jump), agility (L run), and estimated maximal aerobic power ([Vo.sub.2]max multistage fitness test). A progressive increase in total repeated-effort time, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and ratings of perceived exertion occurred throughout the repeated-effort protocol, demonstrating a progressive increase in intensity and fatigue. Fatigue resulted in progressive reductions in tackling technique. Players with the best tackling technique in a nonfatigued state demonstrated the greatest decrement in tackling technique under fatigued conditions. In addition, a significant association was observed between estimated [Vo.sub.2]max (r= -0.62) and agility (r = 0.68) and fatigue-induced decrements in tackling technique. From a practical perspective, these findings suggest that strength and conditioning programs designed to develop endurance, change of direction speed, and anticipation skills may reduce fatigue-induced decrements in tackling technique. Furthermore, any defensive drills designed to improve tackling technique should be performed before and under fatigue. KEY WORDS collision sport, skill, performance, pressure, injury

The acute response of free salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) concentrations to four resistance exercise (RE) protocols in 23 elite men rugby players was investigated. We hypothesized that hormonal responses would differ among individuals after four distinct RE protocols: four sets of 10 repetitions (reps) at 70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) with 2 minutes' rest between sets (4 x 10-70%); three sets of five reps at 85% 1RM with 3 minutes' rest (3 x 5-85%); five sets of 15 reps at 55% 1RM with 1 minute's rest (5 x 15-55%); and three sets of five reps at 40% 1RM with 3 minutes' rest (3 x 5-40%). Each athlete completed each of the four RE protocols in a random order on separate days. T and C concentrations were measured before exercise (PRE), immediately after exercise (POST), and 30 minutes post exercise (30 POST). Each protocol consisted of four exercises: bench press, leg press, seated row, and squats. Pooled T data did not change as a result of RE, whereas C declined significantly. Individual athletes differed in their T response to each of the protocols, a difference that was masked when examining the pooled group data. When individual data were retrospectively tabulated according to the protocol in which each athlete showed the highest T response, a significant protocol-dependent T increase for all individuals was revealed. Therefore, RE induced significant individual, protocol-dependent hormonal changes lasting up to 30 minutes after exercise. These individual responses may have important ramifications for modulating adaptation to RE and could explain the variability often observed in studies of hormonal response to RE. KEY WORDS hypertrophy, maximal strength, strength endurance, power, endocrine response

Our previous work has demonstrated that professional athletes show protocol-dependent variability in salivary testosterone (T) responses to resistance exercise (RE). The current study examines the consistency and functional outcomes of prescribing a RE regimen based on T response. We hypothesized that prescribing an individual-specific RE protocol based on T response would enhance weight training gains. Sixteen amateur rugby players [(mean [+ or -] SD) age: 20 [+ or -] 2 years; height: 181.5 [+ or -] 8.2 cm; weight: 94.2 [+ or -] 11.1 kg] were characterized by their maximal ([T.sub.max]) and minimal ([T.sub.min]) T response to four RE protocols: four sets of 10 repetitions (reps) at 70% of one repetition maximum (1RM) with 2 minutes' rest between sets (4 x 10-70%); three sets of five reps at 85% 1RM with 3 minutes' rest (3 x 5-85%); five sets of 15 reps at 55% of 1RM with 1 minute's rest (5 x 15-55%); and three sets of 5 reps at 40% 1RM with 3 minutes' rest (3 x 5-40%). Eight athletes then performed a 3-week training block performing only their [T.sub.max] protocol. The remaining eight only performed [T.sub.min]. After 3 weeks, the athletes were retested on the RE protocols and then crossed over and performed the alternate 3-week training block. All 16 athletes showed significant increases in estimated bench and leg press 1RM strength and bodyweight while performing [T.sub.max]. When [T.sub.min] was performed, 75% of athletes showed either no change or a significant decline in 1RM performance. Consistent protocol-responses over the experimental period were seen for both the [T.sub.max] and [T.sub.min] protocols in 12 of 16 athletes. Thus, a relationship between an individual's biologically available T response to RE and enhanced functional gains is reported. KEY WORDS hypertrophy, maximal strength, strength endurance, power, endocrine response, hormonal response

Using a multitreatment withdrawal design, this study evaluated the differential effects of publicly posted plus verbal feedback, goal setting plus verbal feedback, and publicly posted feedback, verbal feedback, and goal setting together on the performance of 3 collegiate football players in practice scrimmages. Also assessed was whether the changes in practice behavior generalized to games. The dependent variables were performances on three wide receiver skills. The results show that public posting with verbal feedback, goal setting, and public posting with verbal feedback and goal setting were effective in improving player performance to a 90% criterion level during practice, and these changes generalized to game performance. DESCRIPTORS: coaching interventions, sports

This investigation evaluated the new National Collegiate Athletic Association model of heat acclimatization for football players using physiological, psychological, fluid balance, anthropometric, and nutritional variables. Eleven football players (20 [+ or -] 1 year, 1.88 [+ or -] 0.05 m, and 115.36 [+ or -] 18.85 kg) from a Division I football team were observed for the first 8 days of preseason practices. Measurements such as heart rate and gastrointestinal temperature ([T.sub.GI]) via telemetric sensor were taken before, 3 times during, and after practice daily. An average 1.39-kg (1.2%) decrease of body mass occurred from prepractice to postpractice (p < 0.01). Consistent with mild body mass losses, urinary indices of hydration status (i.e., color, specific gravity, and osmolality) indicated mild fluid deficits. A significant increase (p < 0.05) from pre- to postpractice was observed in urine color and urine specific gravity, but chronic hypohydration over the 8 days was not noted. The Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire (ESQ) postpractice score was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the prepractice score was, but averages did not differ across practice days. There was no difference in postpractice [T.sub.GI] measurements across days (p < 0.05). Heart rate, [T.sub.GI], and ESQ measurements indicated that football players experienced gradual heat acclimatization and enhanced heat tolerance, despite progressive increases of exercise variables, clothing, and environmental stressors. Key Words. core body temperature, hydration, football uniform, surface area-to-mass ratio

Rhea, M.R., R.L. Hunter, and T.J. Hunter. Competition modeling of American football: Observational data and implications for high school, collegiate, and professional player conditioning. J. Strength Cond. Res. 20(1):58 61. 2006.--In an effort to increase the transfer of training to sport performance, sport-specific training programs should be developed. Competition modeling has been proposed as a method for developing metabolic conditioning programs that mimic competition environments. This process involves both a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of competitive conditions of a sport. The purpose of this observational research was to construct a competition model of American football for 3 different levels: high school, collegiate, and professional. Observations of 30 football games at different levels were conducted and modeled with respect to length of play, length of recovery between plays, plays per series, and stoppages per series. The resultant data demonstrated that differences in these variables exist between levels of play. High school plays lasted, on average, 5.6 [+ or -] 2.0 seconds and were slightly longer than college (+0.47 seconds) and professional (+0.44 seconds) plays. The average time for recovery between plays was longest in National Football League (NFL) games and shortest in high school. On average, the work to recovery ratio was most strenuous in high school (1:5.5), college (1:6.1), and NFL (1:6.2), respectively. Differences in the identified competitive conditions, although slight, do exist among high school, collegiate, and professional football. In order to design specific metabolic training programs for American football, coaches should consider the identified models. Exercise to rest ratios and volume of work performed in a training session should be designed to ensure that players are preparing specifically for identified game conditions. KEY WORDS. needs analysis, exercise, physical conditioning

Ten intercollegiate football players were tested within 3 days prior to (T1) and the day following the end (T2) of football preseason training camp and during weeks 7 (T3) and 11 (T4) of the competitive season. During each testing session, subjects performed a 30-second Wingate anaerobic power test. Near-infrared continuous wave spectroscopy was used to measure muscle deoxygenation during exercise. No changes in any power performance measures were seen during the competitive football season. A significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the extent of deoxygenation during exercise was observed between T2 (72.6 [+ or -] 19.4%) and T4 (50.2 [+ or -] 14.2%). A 30 and 29% difference (p < 0.05) in the onset of reoxygenation was observed between T1 and T3 and T4, respectively. A 51% decrease (p < 0.05) in halftime recovery was observed between T2 and T3. Results indicate that the extent of muscle deoxygenation is reduced during high-intensity exercise and that muscle oxygen recovery kinetics improves over the duration of a competitive season of football. Key Words. Anaerobic power, competitive athletes, football, performance, near-infrared spectroscopy, muscle ischemia

Previous research has demonstrated that muscular strength of the knee extensors is related to the speed an athlete can produce during a single-sprint performance. Football players, as well as many other athletes on the field and the court, execute multiple sprints during the course of a match. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between leg strength, single-sprint speed, and repeated-sprint ability. Thirty-eight football players from 3 codes (soccer, rugby league, rugby union) completed a 12- x 20-m repeated-sprint protocol and were evaluated for peak isokinetic knee extension and flexion torque at 60[degrees] x [s.sup.-1], 150[degrees] x [s.sup.-1], and 240[degrees] x [s.sup.-1]. Although single-sprint performance correlated with peak extensor and flexor torque at all velocities, the strongest correlation was observed between relative knee extensor torque at 240[degrees] x [s.sup.-1], and the initial acceleration phase (0-10 m) of the single-sprint performance (r = -0.714, p < 0.01). However, the data suggest that factors other than strength contribute to repeated-sprint ability. This finding provides new evidence in elucidating the relationship between strength and repeated-sprint performance. KEY WORDS. acceleration, multiple-sprint sports, speed endurance

It has been posited that certain balances in strength should exist for opposing muscle groups (e.g., hamstrings and quadriceps) or actions (e.g., internal and external rotation of the shoulder) to improve sports performance or limit the likelihood of injury. Typically, expensive laboratory equipment such as isokinetic devices has been used to evaluate strength balances. The purpose of this study was to determine if two popular field tests of strength could be used to assess a concise strength balance in roughly opposing muscle actions for the shoulder girdle. The two opposing movement actions of pressing away from the shoulder girdle and pulling in towards the shoulder girdle were assessed via the 1 repetition maximum bench press (1RM BP) and 1 repetition maximum pull-up (1RM PU), respectively. Forty-two rugby league players, comprising 21 national league (NRL) and 21 state league (SRL) players, who regularly performed both exercises in their training, served as subjects in this investigation. The equivalence of the strength ratio (BP/PU x 100) and correlation between tests were also examined. The pooled data exhibited a strength ratio of 97.7% (9.0%) and correlation of r = 0.81 between the 1RM BP of 130.1 [+ or -] 20.2 kg and 1RM PU of 133.1 [+ or -] 17.1 kg. The small standard deviation exhibited tends to indicate that athletes should exhibit a concise ratio of around 100% if pressing and pulling strength have been addressed fairly equally in training. However, some athletes may have body types, preexisting injuries, or training histories that predispose them to either excelling or performing poorly during strength activities for either upper body pressing or pulling actions, with differences in strength of up to 15% existing in some individuals. These factors need to be taken into account when prescribing training based upon the strength ratio between pressing and pulling strength. KEY WORDS. bench press, pull-up, strength ratio, rugby league, muscle balance

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the contribution of anthropometric dimensions to improving the accuracy of repetitions-to-fatigue (RTF) using an absolute load of 225 lbs to predict 1 repetition maximum (1RM) bench press performance in college football players. Sixty-one players from an NCAA Division II team were evaluated for 1RM bench press performance, RTF using an absolute load of 225 lbs, and measured (5 skinfolds, 2 skeletal length, and 2 muscle circumferences). Anthropometric dimensions (percent fat, lean body mass, and arm cross-sectional areas) were derived at the conclusion of 8 weeks of heavy resistance training during the off-season. None of the anthropometric dimensions made a significant additional contribution to RTF (r 0.96, SEE = 12.3 lbs) for predicting 1RM. Of the currently available NFL-225 prediction equations found in the literature nonsignificantly underestimated 1RM from RTF by an average of 1.1 lbs ([+ or -] 12.7 lbs), whereas 5 other RTF equations significantly overpredicted by 3.5-9.0 lbs ([+ or -] 12.2-14.1 lbs). Anthropometric dimensions neither reduced the error associated with prediction of 1RM bench press using the NFL-225 test in college football players nor do they explain why some players are significantly over- or underpredicted when using muscle endurance repetitions. KEY WORDS. muscular strength, absolute muscular endurance, strength prediction, bench press

The purpose of this study was to compare selected physical fitness and performance variables between National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and II football players. The subjects included offensive and defensive starters, excluding kickers and punters from 26 NCAA Division I and 23 Division II teams. Offensive players were grouped and compared by the following positions: quarterback, running back, wide receiver, tight end, and line. Defensive players were grouped and compared by the following positions: line, linebackers, and backs. Division I players were better in 58 of 117 comparisons (p [less than or equal to] 0.01). Division II players were not found to be better in any of the variables studied. KEY WORDS. athletics, training, conditioning, body composition, strength, power

The purpose of this study was to compare normative data from present Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association football teams to those from 1987. Players were divided into 8 positions for comparisons: quarterbacks (QB), running backs (RB), receivers (WR), tight ends (TE), offensive linemen (OL), defensive linemen (DL), linebackers (LB), and defensive backs (DB). Comparisons included height, body mass, bench press and squat strength, vertical jump, vertical jump power, 40-yd-dash speed, and body composition. Independent t-tests were used to analyze the data with level of significance set at p < 0.01. Significant differences (p < 0.01) were found in 50 of 88 comparisons. From 1987 until 2000, Division I college football players in general have become bigger, stronger, faster, and more powerful. Further research is warranted to investigate if these trends will continue. KEY WORDS. vertical jump power, body composition, longitudinal study