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The relationship between nicotine dependence and DSM-IV psychiatric disorders in 1,039 adolescents is examined. Findings revealed that psychiatric disorders most usually predicted the onset of the first basis of nicotine dependence while nicotine dependence does not appear to have an influence on the onset of psychiatric disorders. Other predictors of psychiatric disorders and nicotine dependence are analyzed.

Objectives. We describe the epidemiology of smoking behaviors in a national young adult sample and identify common and unique demographic, social, and psychological correlates of daily smoking and lifetime and current nicotine dependence by race/ethnicity. Methods. Data are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health, wave III. Dependence was measured by the Revised Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence. Logistic regressions were estimated. Results. Hispanic ethnicity, low education, parental and peer smoking, novelty seeking, early age of smoking onset, and pleasurable initial smoking experiences are significantly correlated with daily smoking and lifetime nicotine dependence. Depressive symptoms are uniquely associated with lifetime and current dependence. Few factors are highly associated with current dependence. Initial sensitivity to smoking has a significantly greater impact on daily smoking than on dependence. Correlates of smoking behaviors are mostly common across racial/ ethnic groups, although parental and peer smoking are significant for Whites and Hispanics but not for African Americans. Conclusions. There are more common than unique correlates of each smoking stage and across racial/ethnic groups. Primary prevention and interventions addressing the factors tested could be uniform for most chronic smokers irrespective of dependence status and race/ethnicity. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.057232)

Objectives. We sought to identify individual and contextual predictors of adolescent smoking initiation and progression to daily smoking by race/ethnicity. Methods. We used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to estimate the effects of individual (adolescent, family, peer) and contextual (school and state) factors on smoking onset among nonsmokers (n = 5374) and progression to daily smoking among smokers (n = 4474) with multilevel regression models. Results. Individual factors were more important predictors of smoking behaviors than were contextual factors. Predictors of smoking behaviors were mostly common across racial/ethnic groups. Conclusions. The few identified racial/ethnic differences in predictors of smoking behavior suggest that universal prevention and intervention efforts could reach most adolescents regardless of race/ethnicity. With 2 exceptions, important contextual factors remain to be identified.

Objective: The impact of prenatal maternal drinking on alcohol consumption in adolescent offspring was examined among boys and girls separately. Method: A prospective longitudinal sample of 185 mother-firstborn child dyads was used to examine the impact of maternal self-reported alcohol consumption during pregnancy on adolescent self-reported lifetime and current drinking, controlling for potential confounding factors. Results: In this representative general population sample, maternal drinking during pregnancy, particularly continuous moderate to heavy consumption, had a significant positive effect on adolescent daughters' current drinking, but a slight negative effect on sons' lifetime drinking. The sex-specific prenatal effect on current drinking persisted with controls for prenatal maternal cigarette smoking, current maternal drinking, child-rearing practices (i.e., maternal-child closeness, monitoring and a rule against drinking) and the adolescent's problem behaviors in childhood. Prenatal maternal smoking was also associated with elevated rates of adolescent drinking, particularly current drinking. Of the child-rearing variables, only a rule against drinking decreased adolescent drinking. Conclusions: Selected prenatal factors may constitute risks for alcohol consumption among adolescent daughters. The results are discussed in light of animal models that document increased vulnerability among female offspring to the deleterious effects of gestational alcohol exposure. Implications for understanding the risk factors associated with adolescent alcohol use are discussed. (J. Stud. Alcohol 59: 292-304, 1998), Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with severe effects on the offspring's physical, cognitive, and behavioral development. Studies have reported such effects as dysmorphy, low birth weight, CNS irregularities, and neurobehavioral deficits. Results of a study showed that mothers who drink during pregnancy not only place their offsprings in great danger, but they especially place their daughters at risk for alcohol use during adolescence., Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with deleterious effects on offspring (Abel, 1982), including immediate and long-term consequences on physical, cognitive and behavioral development. Numerous studies have reported such immediate effects [...]

Variations in ratings of externalizing and internalizing symptoms may contain a trait (i.e., shared view) component when behavioral symptoms that generalize across context are perceived and an individual view component when they are misperceived or when each informant has access to different symptoms. Using a LISREL model, we estimated the trait and the informant-specific, individual view components in parental ratings of externalizing and internalizing symptoms of adolescent siblings. The model demonstrated that mothers' and fathers' ratings contained a substantial individual view component (from 21% to 50% of total rating variance, depending on rater and trait). Except for fathers' ratings of internalizing symptoms (13%), parental ratings also contained a substantial trait component (42% to 58%). Mother's, father's, and child's ratings may be averaged to estimate a trait of externalizing. To estimate an internalizing trait, it may be best to combine just the mother's rating with the child's self-rating. KEY WORDS: Siblings; parental ratings; externalizing and internalizing symptoms.

The relationships between specific quantities and frequencies of alcohol, cigarette, and illicit substance use and substance use (SUD) and other psychiatric disorders were investigated among 1,285 randomly selected children and adolescents, aged 9 to 18, and their parents, from the Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA) Study. Logistic regressions indicated that daily cigarette smoking, weekly alcohol consumption, and any illicit substance use in the past year were each independently associated with an elevated likelihood of diagnosis with SUD and other psychiatric disorders (anxiety, mood, or disruptive behavior disorders), controlling for sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, family income). The associations between the use of specific substances and specific psychiatric disorders varied as a function of gender. KEY WORDS: Substance use; psychiatric disorders; adolescents.

A study examined the effect of marital selection and causation on marijuana use among couples. Moreover, it investigated the influence of marital dissolution on the use of marijuana. This research used data obtained from 490 married couples, who were asked to provide answers twice, the second one gathered five and a half years after the first. Results found that marital selection effects have a greater impact than causation effects. Moreover, divorce influenced continued marijuana use of spouses.

Unique statistical models for the sequence analysis of events are presented. The models are designed to study occurrence, association and sequencing among events as an extension of log-linear models. The models can be used for the decomposition of the likelihood function into a marginal likelihood component that includes only parameters for sequencing among events. The models are also utilized for regressions with covariates. The models are applied in the examination of gender and racial/ethnic differences in patterns of drug use progression., 1. INTRODUCTION This article introduces novel statistical models for the analysis of sequences of events that have several advantages over preceding models. These new models, which we label sequence models, [...]

Estimates of the relative influence of peers and parents on adolescents' drug use and other forms of deviance have inflated the importance of peers and underestimated the influence of parents. Following a brief review of major findings in research on parental-peer linkages, sources of distortion and overestimation in peer effects are identified: reliance on cross-sectional designs, which confound selection and socialization effects; reliance on perceptual reports of friends' behaviors, which reflect projection and attribution; failure to take into account parental contributions to children's peer selection; and failure to consider genetic contributions to observed parental effects. Selected empirical studies that have estimated peer and parental effects on drug use and delinquency from relational and longitudinal designs are utilized to develop correction factors. These are incorporated in equations designed to estimate biases in peer estimates and the effects of parental contributions to peer selection. Within the limitations of the available data, I conclude that peer effects based on cross-sectional data and perceptions of peer behavior are overestimated at least by a factor of five.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal causal analyses were carded out on a longitudinal cohort of employed adult males (N = 400) to investigate the relationship between various forms of drug use and earnings. By age 35, there are no cumulative effects of the use of illicit drugs on wages. Specification of the relationships at various stages of the life cycle reveals that the effects of illicit drug use are positive in the early stages of labor force participation (by the late twenties) but negative in later stages (by the mid-thirties). The negative impact of drug use on earnings appears to take more than a decade to manifest itself and is reflected in lower rates of earnings growth. We propose that a labor market theory of life-cycle compensation contracts and investments in training and the differential impact that different types of job changes have in the short and the long run among users and nonusers provide a partial accounting of the processes underlying the observed opposite relationships between drug use and earnings at different age periods. The importance of adopting a life-span perspective is highlighted by our findings., Drug Use and Labor Force Achievement Until recently, lifestyle factors, especially those indexing nonconforming values and behaviors, were rarely included in models of socioeconomic achievement. However, involvement in drugs, especially [...]

Objectives. Since cigarette smoking in adolescence represents a crucial entry point in the progression to illicit drugs, risk factors for adolescent smoking have public health implications. The influence of mothers on children's smoking appears to be greater than that of fathers. To explain the selective influence of mothers, we examined the consequences of maternal smoking during pregnancy in two longitudinal samples. Methods. Analyses were conducted on follow-up interview data from two dyadic samples of mothers and firstborn adolescents for whom data on maternal smoking during and after pregnancy were available (192 mother-child pairs originating from New York State and 797 dyads from a national sample). Results. In both samples, maternal smoking during pregnancy, when postnatal smoking was controlled, selectively increased the probability that female children would smoke and would persist in smoking (adjusted odds ratios of about 4). Conclusions. The findings suggest that nicotine or other substances released by maternal smoking can affect the fetus, perhaps through the nicotinic input to the dopaminergic motivational system, so as to predispose the brain in a critical period of its development to the subsequent addictive influence of nicotine consumed more than a decade later in life. (Am J Public Health. 1994;84:1407-1413), Daughters of women who smoked during their pregnancies and after may be more likely to start smoking as teenagers than daughters of nonsmokers and than sons. Information was analyzed for 192 women and their children age nine to 17 in 1990 who were participants in a study of New York State (NYS) residents. The women had been followed since they were high school students in 1971. Information was also available on another 797 women and their first-born children from a national sample. Nearly 29% of the NYS women smoked throughout their pregnancies; 41% smoked at some point in their pregnancies. Of these last, about 39% of their daughters smoked at some point. Only 13% of the daughters of women who did not smoke during pregnancy ever smoked. The difference was not significant in the national sample: about 20% of the daughters smoked at some point regardless of their mother's smoking behavior during pregnancy. A relationship was found in both surveys for daughters currently smoking (a measure of smoking persistently or beyond experimentation) and mothers smoking during pregnancy. This effect was greater than on sons' smoking.

The extent to which the behavioral difficulties, self-esteem and cognitive functioning of children are affected by drug use and untraditional behavior of mothers was examined. The externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems of children are directly affected by the attitudes of mothers as young adults or adolescents.

We assess the similarity between marital partners on the use of illegal drugs prior to marriage and within the most recent year of marriage, and the dynamic processes underlying observed similarity. Similarity after marriage may result from assortative mating or socialization or both. Concordant and discordant patterns of drug use at each time between spouses/partners in a sample of 545 pairs ([X, bar above] age husbands = 30, [X, bar above] age wives = 28) are cross-tabulated to generate a 16-fold table. Similarity at one point in time and selection and socialization effects underlying change over time are estimated without controls for population heterogeneity through loglinear models, and with controls for heterogeneity through latent trait models. While there is evidence for assortative mating, the socialization effect documented by the loglinear models disappears in teh latent trait models., The extent to which marital partners share similar interests, values and behaviors has important sociological and biological implications. From a sociological perspective, similarity is related to the degree of marital [...]

Objectives. Prior research has identified developmental stages in drug use in adolescence, from substances that are legal for adults to illicit drugs. The position of crack in patterns of drug involvement remains to be established. Methods. The analyses are based on a sample (n = 1108) representative of 12th graders attending New York State public and private schools. From reported ages of first use of five classes of drugs alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine but not crack, crack), alternate models of progression were tested for their goodness of fit through log-linear models. Results. The sequence involves at the earliest stage the use of at least one licit drug, alcohol or cigarettes. Subsequent stages involve marijuana and cocaine; crack is the last drug in the sequence. The results confirm the more important role of alcohol among males and cigarettes among females in the progression into various drug classes. Age of first drug use at a lower stage is a strong predictor of further progression. Conclusions. The developmental pattern of drug involvement identified in the early 1970s still characterizes adolescent pathways of drug involvement in the late 1980s. (Am J Public Health. 1993;83:851-855), Most teenagers who use crack cocaine seem to follow a pattern of substance abuse. The pattern begins with alcohol and tobacco use, progresses to marijuana use and continues with cocaine and crack use. Of 1108 high school seniors who answered a questionnaire on alcohol, tobacco and drug use, almost 96% had tried at least one. Their answers, including age of first use, were analyzed using a statistical model. Only 7.9% of male crack users and 4.9% of female crack users did not fit the pattern. Marijuana had been used previously by 90% of the crack users. Teenagers who progressed to crack use started smoking cigarettes earlier than those who did not. Teenage girls who smoked cigarettes were more likely to progress to drug use, but alcohol use was a more important factor for teenage boys.

A longitudinal study was conducted to identify the successive stages of involvement in legal and illicit drugs. 1160 subjects were followed from ages 15 to 35 through structured interviews to assess the validity of the 'Gateway Theory.' It was found that drug-involvement shows a sequential progression from legal drugs such as alcohol and cigarette, to marijuana, to other illegal drugs and finally to medically prescribed drugs. Frequency of intake and age of onset of drug abuse can be used as reliable predictors of future progression.

The relationship between adolescent drug use and premarital teen pregnancy and abortion as a pregnancy outcome among sexually active women is investigated in a sample of white women from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Event history analysis is used to explore whether prior drug use has a unique effect on premarital teen pregnancy, with controls for personality, lifestyle, and biological factors. Logistic regression is used to estimate whether drug use affects the decision to terminate a premarital teen pregnancy. The results show that the risk of premarital teen pregnancy is nearly four times as high for those who have used illicit drugs other than marijuana as for those with no history of any prior substance involvement. Furthermore, illicit drug use increases the likelihood of an abortion by a factor of 5. Policy implications of the findings are discussed.

Nationally, the use of marijuana began to decline in 1980, and cocaine use began to decline in mid-decade. A 1988 survey of high school students in New York State documented a sizable decline in the use of drugs over the preceding five years, with the sharpest declines in areas where usage was once highest. This may be a result of the age structure of the population, peer pressure, and the attitudes of youth in the different areas. Drug use is most common among young people in their late teens and early twenties, and this age group has shrunk over the past few years. A smaller cohort (those of the same age) means fewer interactions with peers, which is an influence on the trial of illicit drugs. During that time the perception of risks has increased, as has the disapproval of drug use. At the same time the high school dropout rate has been declining, so decreased drug use among students is not a result of drug users leaving the schools. Treated or clinical cases of drug abuse have increased, probably due to the time lag between initiation of drug use and the onset of health problems. Also, the more serious forms of drug abuse are probably to be concentrated in depressed communities that are not likely to be well represented in school or household surveys. The results suggest a trend toward a more polarized society. Better educational and job opportunities are one way of trying to reduce this trend. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

The interrelationships of depression and suicide with adolescent drug use, delinquency, eating disorders, and the risk factors for these different problems were investigated among 597 9th and 11th graders in an urban high school. There is a strong association of drug use with suicidal ideation among girls, and a stronger relationship with attempts among girls and boys. Suicidal youths are ill-adjusted and display a lack of attachment and commitment to family and school. Causal models indicate that poor interpersonal interactions with parents, absence of peer interactions, and life events lead to depression, which in turn leads to suicidal ideation. Depressive symptoms are the strongest predictors of suicidal ideation. Among females, depression predicts drug involvement, and in turn, drug use increases suicidal ideation. Drug use is only one class of problem behaviors that constitutes a risk factor for suicidal behavior in adolescence. Delinquency and eating disorders also have direct effects on suicidal ideation beyond those of depressive affect. As for drug involvement, these problem behaviors are more predictive of suicidal behavior among girls than boys. Similarity and specificity of the predictors for problem behaviors within and between the sexes are discussed. Although young women use drugs to handle feelings of depression, drug use appears ineffective in the long run in relieving these depressive feelings. Understanding the dynamics of suicidal ideation in adolescence has important public health implications, since ideation is a strong predictor of attempts, especially among females.

Dear Editor: Kandel and Chen do a nice job of stratifying marijuana use groups (Kandel and Chen, 2000). Several of their points are very significant as we consider marijuana to [...]

Objective: Taxonomies of alcoholism and antisocial behaviors based on developmental course converge on two-group classifications that emphasize early and late onset. Typologies for users of illicit drugs remain to be developed. This article proposes a developmental taxonomy of marijuana users. Method: Cluster analysis was applied to a representative community sample of 708 (364 male, 344 female) marijuana users followed from adolescence to age 34-35. The Ward method, followed by relocation, was used to classify marijuana users into different types based on age of onset, chronicity of heavy use and persistence of use. ANOVA and logit analyses were utilized to describe the cluster solution and examine the correlates of cluster membership. Results: Four marijuana use clusters were identified: early onset-heavy use, early onset-light use, mid onset-heavy use and late onset-light use. The groups differed from each other in degree of involvement in marijuana and other drugs, sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics. The majority of those with early onset did not become heavily involved in marijuana. Unique factors were associated with membership in each group. Factors differentiating early from mid-onset heavy use included association with marijuana-using peers and having had a mental disorder. Peer delinquency was an additional factor differentiating early initiators who became heavy users from those who did not. Conclusions: A simple two-type classification fails to take into account the heterogeneity of early and late onset groups. By itself, early onset into marijuana will not lead to problematic use or rapid progression into the use of other drugs. Motivation underlying use and dysfunctional behaviors are associated with the development of problematic drug use and dependence. (J. Stud. Alcohol 61: 367-378, 2000), THE STUDY OF developmental trajectories of involvement in the use of drugs can be approached using three strategies. One strategy identifies pathways of progression from one drug class to another, [...]

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to specify the effect of prenatal fetal exposure to maternal cotinine and testosterone on daughters' smoking in adolescence and adulthood. Methods. Longitudinal causal models were estimated among 240 White mother--daughter pairs from the Child Health and Development Study. Mothers and daughters were reinterviewed when daughters were aged 15 to 17 years, and daughters were interviewed at 27 to 30 years of age. Blood samples were obtained from both parents during pregnancy and from adult daughters. Results. Testosterone and smoking were positively correlated among mothers during their pregnancy and among adult daughters. Maternal prenatal cotinine had no direct effect on daughters' smoking; self-reported smoking in pregnancy did have a direct effect. Smoking among daughters during adolescence was determined by maternal prenatal testosterone and self-reported maternal smoking during pregnancy and postnatally. Smoking among adult daughters reflected chronic smoking since adolescence and the continuing effect of postnatal maternal smoking. Prenatal maternal testosterone affected adult daughters' testosterone. Conclusions. Estimates of the impact of prenatal maternal smoking depend on the measure of smoking. Prenatal testosterone exposure is a previously unrecognized risk factor for smoking among female offspring. Am J Public Health. 1999;89:1377-1383)

There is a strong association between using marijuana and using other drugs such as heroin and cocaine. A study published in 2003 supports the connection by showing that twins who use marijuana are more likely to go on to other drugs than their twin sibling who does not use marijuana. This shows that drug use may not necessarily have genetic or environmental causes.