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The three-dimensional global wind field is the most important remaining measurement needed to accurately assess the dynamics of the atmosphere. Wind information in the tropics, high latitudes, and stratosphere is particularly deficient. Furthermore, only a small fraction of the atmosphere is sampled in terms of wind profiles. This limits our ability to optimally specify initial conditions for numerical weather prediction (NWP) models and our understanding of several key climate change issues. Because of its extensive wind measurement heritage (since 1968) and especially the rapid recent technology advances, Doppler lidar has reached a level of maturity required for a space-based mission. The European Space Agency (ESA)'s Atmospheric Dynamics Mission Aeolus (ADM-Aeolus) Doppler wind lidar (DWL), now scheduled for launch in 2015, will be a major milestone. This paper reviews the expected impact of DWL measurements on NWP and climate research, measurement concepts, and the recent advances in technology that will set the stage for space-based deployment. Forecast impact experiments with actual airborne DWL measurements collected over the North Atlantic in 2003 and assimilated into the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) operational model are a clear indication of the value of lidar-measured wind profiles. Airborne DWL measurements collected over the western Pacific in 2008 and assimilated into both the ECMWF and U.S. Navy operational models support the earlier findings. These forecast impact experiments confirm observing system simulation experiments (OSSEs) conducted over the past 25-30 years. The addition of simulated DWL wind observations in recent OSSEs performed at the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA) leads to a statistically significant increase in forecast skill., The purpose of this paper is to document the advances in our understanding of the need for global wind measurements since our earlier paper (Baker et al. 1995), to summarize [...]

A differential absorption lidar has been built to measure C[O.sub.2] concentration in the atmosphere. The transmitter is a pulsed single-frequency Ho:Tm:YLF laser at a 2.05-[micro]m wavelength. A coherent heterodyne receiver was used to achieve sensitive detection, with the additional capability for wind profiling by a Doppler technique. Signal processing includes an algorithm for power measurement of a heterodyne signal. Results show a precision of the C[O.sub.2] concentration measurement of 1%-2% 1[sigma] standard deviation over column lengths ranging from 1.2 to 2.8 km by an average of 1000 pulse pairs. A preliminary assessment of instrument sensitivity was made with an 8-h-long measurement set, along with correlative measurements with an in situ sensor, to determine that a C[O.sub.2] trend could be detected. OCIS codes: 280.0280, 280.1910, 140.0140, 140.3580.

The explanation proposed by Belmonte and Rye [Appl. Opt. 39, 2401 (2000)] for the difference between simulation and the zero-order theory for heterodyne lidar returns in a turbulent atmosphere is incorrect. The theoretical expansion the authors considered is not developed under a square-law structure-function approximation (random-wedge atmosphere). Agreement between the simulations and the zero-order term of the theoretical expansion is produced for the limit of statistically independent paths (bistatic operation with large transmitter-receiver separation) when the simulations correctly include the large-scale gradients of the turbulent atmosphere. OCIS codes: 010.1330, 010.3640, 040.2840, 120.0280, 280.3640.

The theory of special relativity is used to analyze some of the physical phenomena associated with space-based coherent Doppler lidars aimed at Earth and the atmosphere. Two important cases of diffuse scattering and retroreflection by lidar targets are treated. For the case of diffuse scattering, we show that for a coaligned transmitter and receiver on the moving satellite, there is no angle between transmitted and returned radiation. However, the ray that enters the receiver does not correspond to a retroreflected ray by the target. For the retroreflection case there is misalignment between the transmitted ray and the received ray. In addition, the Doppler shift in the frequency and the amount of tip for the receiver aperture when needed are calculated. The error in estimating wind because of the Doppler shift in the frequency due to special relativity effects is examined. The results are then applied to a proposed space-based pulsed coherent Doppler lidar at NASA'' Marshall Space Flight Center for wind and aerosol backscatter measurements. The lidar uses an orbiting spacecraft with a pulsed laser source and measures the Doppler shift between the transmitted and the received frequencies to determine the atmospheric wind velocities. We show that the special relativity effects are small for the proposed system.

The coherent launch-site atmospheric wind sounder (CLAWS) is a lidar atmospheric wind sensor designed to measure the winds above space launch facilities to an altitude of 20 km. In our development studies, lidar sensor requirements are defined, a system to meet those requirements is defined and built, and the concept is evaluated, with recommendations for the most feasible and cost-effective lidar system for use as an input to a guidance and control system for missile or spacecraft launches. The ability of CLAWS to meet NASA goals for increased safety and launch/mission flexibility is evaluated in a field test program at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in which we investigate maximum detection range, refractive turbulence, and aerosol backscattering efficiency. The Nd:YAG coherent lidar operating at 1.06 micrometer with 1-J energy per pulse is able to make real-time measurements of the three-dimensional wind field at KSC to an altitude of 26 km, in good agreement with our performance simulations. It also shows the height and thickness of the volcanic layer caused by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.