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The growth of the net pen salmon farming industry and the concurrent decline of many wild salmon populations have generated an ongoing call for research into the potential role of infectious agents associated with salmon farming. Here, we describe a method to screen for the presence of viral nucleic acids by sampling biological waste in the vicinity of farms. We collected biological samples adjacent to 56 marine net pens from five different companies, and two farm salmon processing plants (n = 230), 70% of samples were positive for Piscine orthoreovirus-1 (PRV-1). Viral genome segments S1 (n = 68) and M2 (n = 39) were sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis. Sequences were all monophyletic to the clade of PRV-1 routinely found in the region. Consistent with previous studies, samples collected near Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farms were related to a lineage of PRV-1a commonly detected in both farmed and wild salmon in British Columbia, while a related lineage of PRV-1a was detected near Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) farms. Similarity in sequence within companies suggests that Atlantic salmon freshwater hatcheries are a probable source of this virus to the marine environment, concordant with recent detections of PRV-1 within those hatcheries. Keywords: Piscine orthoreovirus, PRV-1, aquaculture, salmon farm, phylogenetics, Introduction Open-net salmon farming creates opportunities for pathogens to be exchanged between farmed and wild fish. Open-net salmon farming facilities in British Columbia (BC) are situated in the nearshore marine [...]

Individuals of different sex or age can vary in their prey and habitat resource use due to differences in behaviour, life history, energetic need, or size. Harbour porpoises are small cetaceans that need to feed constantly to meet their high metabolic demands. In West Greenland, the species has a unique offshore, deep-water ecology. Here, we use bone collagen carbon ([delta].sup.13C) and nitrogen ([delta].sup.15N) isotope compositions to elucidate sex and size differences in the foraging ecology of harbour porpoises from this region. Female harbour porpoises are larger than males; we find females have a higher trophic level, and [delta].sup.15N significantly positively correlates with size for females. This indicates that size may matter in the ability of females to handle larger prey and/or dive deeper to catch higher trophic level prey. The results suggest that females, which also nurse their calves, may be under different ecological constraints than males. We also analysed the harbour porpoise data with available stable isotope data from Greenland populations of belugas and narwhals. We find that harbour porpoises have a lower trophic level than the other species, which is consistent with their smaller body size, and their diet consisting primarily of capelin. Furthermore, harbour porpoises have the largest ecological niche of the three species, in accordance with tagging studies indicating they have a wider range than belugas and narwhals and occur in shelf and deep offshore waters of the sub-arctic and North Atlantic., Author(s): Marie Louis [sup.1] [sup.2] , Jennifer Routledge [sup.3] , Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen [sup.4] , Paul Szpak [sup.3] , Eline D. Lorenzen [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.5254.6, 0000 0001 0674 [...]

Serologic studies are crucial for understanding current and future dynamics of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. In the past few months, much discussion about serologic studies and key issues with [...]

The belief that, for the individual patient, the benefit of prompt and continued use of antimicrobials outweighs any potential harm is a significant barrier to improved stewardship of these vital agents. Antimicrobial stewardship may be perceived as utilitarian rationing, seeking to preserve the availability of effective antimicrobials by limiting the development of resistance in a manner which could conflict with the immediate treatment of the patient in need. This view does not account for the growing evidence of antimicrobial-associated harm to individual patients. This review sets out the evidence for antimicrobial-associated harm and how this should be balanced with the need for prompt and appropriate therapy in infection. It describes the mechanisms by which antimicrobials may harm patients including: mitochondrial toxicity; immune cell toxicity; adverse drug reactions; selection of resistant organisms within a given patient; and disruption of the microbiome. Finally, the article indicates how the harms of antimicrobials may be mitigated and identifies areas for research and development in this field., Author(s): Nishkantha Arulkumaran [sup.1], Matthew Routledge [sup.2] [sup.3], Sanmarié Schlebusch [sup.4] [sup.5], Jeffrey Lipman [sup.4] [sup.6] [sup.7], Andrew Conway Morris [sup.8] [sup.9] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.83440.3b, 0000000121901201, Bloomsbury Institute for [...]

BACKGROUND: Presentation with a firm type of chronic hepatomegaly of multifactorial etiology is common among school-age children in sub-Saharan Africa. OBJECTIVE: Aflatoxin is a liver toxin and carcinogen contaminating staple [...]

This research builds on terror management theory to examine the relationships among self-esteem, death cognition, and psychological adjustment. Self-esteem was measured (Studies 1-2, 4-8) or manipulated (Study 3), and thoughts of death were manipulated (Studies 1-3, 5-8) or measured (Study 4). Subsequently, satisfaction with life (Study 1). subjective vitality (Study 2), meaning in life (Studies 3-5), positive and negative affect (Studies 1, 4, 5), exploration (Study 6), state anxiety (Study 7), and social avoidance (Study 8) were assessed. Death-related cognition (a) decreased satisfaction with life, subjective vitality, meaning in life, and exploration; (b) increased negative affect and state anxiety; and (c) exacerbated social avoidance for individuals with low self-esteem but not for those with high self-esteem. These effects occurred only when death thoughts were outside of focal attention. Parallel effects were found in American (Studies 1-4, 6-8) and Chinese (Study 5) samples. Keywords: self-esteem, mortality salience, well-being DOI: 10.1037/a0021431

To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2010.01571.x Byline: BRYAN R. ROUTLEDGE, STANLEY E. ZIN (*) Abstract: ABSTRACT We characterize generalized disappointment aversion (GDA) risk preferences that can overweight lower-tail outcomes relative to expected utility. We show in an endowment economy that recursive utility with GDA risk preferences generates effective risk aversion that is countercyclical. This feature comes from endogenous variation in the probability of disappointment in the representative agent's intertemporal consumption-saving problem that underlies the asset pricing model. The variation in effective risk aversion produces a large equity premium and a risk-free rate that is procyclical and has low volatility in an economy with a simple autoregressive endowment-growth process. Article note: (*) Routledge is from the Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University. Zin is from The Stern School of Business, New York University and the NBER. The authors thank David Backus, Harjoat Bhamra, Gian Luca Clementi, Eddie Dekel, Larry Epstein, Richard Green, Lars Hansen, Campbell Harvey, Chew Soo Hong, Thomas Knox, Bart Lipman, Monika Piazzesi, Uday Rajan, Jacob Sagi, Robert Stambaugh (Editor), and an anonymous referee. They also thank seminar participants at the Bank of Portugal, Carnegie Mellon University, CEPR Gerzensee, CERGE Prague, the Cleveland Fed, HEC Montreal, Columbia University, IHS Vienna, NBER, Columbia University, New York University, Northwestern University, SED 2003, Simon Fraser University, University of British Columbia, University of Cincinnati, University of Houston, University of Washington, and WFA 2004, for helpful comments.

To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00639.x Byline: Jacob Juhl (1), Clay Routledge (1) Abstract: ABSTRACT Previous research indicates that people respond to heightened death-related cognition with increased defense of predominant cultural beliefs (cultural worldview defense). However, recent research indicates that individual differences in personal need for structure (PNS) impact responses to threatening thoughts of death such that those high, but not low, in PNS respond to death thoughts by seeking a highly structured, clear, and coherent view of the world. Research has yet to fully consider the extent to which PNS affects the cultural worldview defenses typically exhibited after death is rendered salient. The current 3 studies examine the potential for PNS to determine the extent to which people respond to mortality salience with increased worldview defense. In all three studies PNS was measured and mortality salience induced. Subsequently, university-related (Study 1) or religious (Studies 2 and 3) worldview defense was assessed. Only individuals high in PNS responded to mortality salience with increased worldview defense. Author Affiliation: (1)North Dakota State University Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jacob Juhl, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105. E-mail: jacob.juhl@ndsu.edu.

A study examines the events in Jana Andolan (PeopleEs Movement) which took place over 19 days in April 2006 as a popular protest movement against the royal-military coup initiated by King Gyanendra in February 2005. An analysis highlights the key role of the urban space in triggering and maintaining the momentum of the protest movement, while also seeking democratic rights for civil society.

Individuals who are low (compared with high) in attachment-related avoidance rely on social bonds to regulate distress, and the authors hypothesized that nostalgia can be a repository of such social connectedness. Studies 1-3 showed a positive association between loneliness and nostalgia when attachment-related avoidance was low, but not when it was high. Study 4 revealed that low-avoidance individuals derived more social connectedness from nostalgia than did high-avoidance individuals. Study 5 extended these findings and demonstrated that, in addition to being a source of social connectedness, nostalgia increased participants' perceived capacity to provide emotional support to others. As in the case of social connectedness, this beneficial effect of nostalgia was significantly stronger when attachment-related avoidance was low (compared with high). Keywords: nostalgia, attachment, loneliness, social connectedness DOI: 10.1037/a0017597

Do reminders of mortality increase or decrease perceptions of life's meaning? The authors propose that death-relevant thought has divergent effects on meaning perceptions depending on individuals' personal need for structure (PNS) or dispositional desire for structured knowledge. In prior research, high-PNS individuals primed with mortality-related stimuli were found to employ clearly structured conceptions of reality. Consequanfly, these individuals were expected to show stable or even bolstered perceptions of meaning when death thought was heightened. Low-PNS individuals did not show this tendency and were therefore expected to show decreased meaning under heightened death-thought activation. The results of Studies la-ld supported these hypotheses. Studies 2 and 3 sought to identify how low-PNS individuals might reaffirm meaning and found that death thought increased their willingness to explore novelty. Studies 4 and 5 directly tested the meaning-conferring function of novelty seeking among low-PNS individuals, showing that the consideration of novel interpretations of the world and their experiences affirmed a sense of meaning in life following reminders of death. Discussion focuses on the relationship between meaning and death and the unique ways Iow-PNS individuals respond to mortality concerns. Keywords: terror management theory, meaning in life, exploration of novelty, personal need for structure

In 4 studies, the role of extrinsic esteem contingencies in adjusting to shifting health-relevant standards when managing existential fears was examined. Study 1 demonstrated that after reminders of death, higher dispositional focus on extrinsic self-esteem contingencies predicted greater interest in tanning. Using a more domain-specific approach, Study 2 showed that, after being reminded of death, the more individuals smoke for social esteem reasons, the more compelling they find an antismoking commercial that exposes adverse social consequences of smoking. Study 3 explored how situational factors (i.e., priming a contingent relational schema) that implicate extrinsic contingencies facilitated the impact of shifting standard primes on tanning intentions after mortality salience. Finally, Study 4 found that mortality salience led to increased endorsement of exercise as a basis of self-worth when participants who derive self-esteem from extrinsic sources visualized someone who exercises. Together, these studies demonstrate that reminders of death interact with prevalent social standards to influence everyday health decisions. Keywords: terror management, health decisions, self-esteem contingencies

Knowledge of postfire residuals in boreal forest landscapes is increasingly important for ecological applications and forest management. While many studies provide useful insight, knowledge of stand-scale postfire residual occurrence and variability remains fragmented and untested as formal hypotheses. We examined the spatial variability of stand-scale postfire residuals in boreal forests and tested hypotheses of their spatial associations. Based on the literature, we hypothesized that preburn forest cover characteristics, site conditions, proximity to water and fire edge, and local fire intensity influence the spatial variability of postfire residuals. To test these hypotheses, we studied live-tree and snag residuals in 11 boreal Ontario forest fires, using 660 sample points based on high resolution photography (1:408) captured immediately after the fires. The abundance of residuals varied considerably within and among these fires, precluding attempts to generalize estimates. Based on a linear mixed-effects model, our data did not support the hypotheses that preburn forest cover characteristics, site conditions, and proximity to water significantly affect the spatial variability of stand-scale residuals. The results do indicate, however, that stand-scale residual variability is associated with local fire intensity (strongly) and distance to fire edge (weakly). La connaissance des residus apres feu dans les paysages forestiers boreaux prend de plus en plus d'importance pour les applications ecologiques et l'amenagement forestier. Meme si plusieurs etudes fournissent des renseignements utiles, la connaissance de la presence et de la variabilite des residus apres feu a (echelle du peuplement demeure fragmentee et n'a pas ete testees sous forme d'hypotheses formelles. Nous avons etudie la variabilite spatiale des residus apres feu a (echelle du peuplement en foret boreale et nous avons teste des hypotheses reliees a leurs relations spatiales. S'appuyant sur la litterature, nous avons pose l'hypothese que la variabilite spatiale des residus apres feu est influencee par les caracteristiques du couvert anterieur au feu, les conditions de la station, la proximite de Peau et de la limite du feu, et l'intensite locale du feu. Pour tester ces hypotheses, nous avons etudie les arbres vivants et les chicots residuels a la suite de feux survenus dans 11 peuplements boreaux de l'Ontario a l'aide des photographies a haute resolution (1 : 408) de 660 points d'echantillonnage prises immediatement apres le feu. L'abondance des residus variait considerablement a l'interieur et entre les feux, excluant toute tentative de generaliser les estimations. En se basant sur un modele lineaire a effets mixtes, nos donnees n'ont pas confirme les hypotheses selon lesquelles les caracteristiques du couvert anterieur au feu, les conditions de la station et la proximite de l'eau influencent la variabilite spatiale des residus a l'echelle du peuplement. Cependant, les resultats indiquent que la variabilite residuelle a l'echelle du peuplement est associee a l'intensite locale du feu (lien fort) et a la distance de la limite du feu (lien faible). [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction Forest fires are frequent in boreal North America, burning over 7 x [10.sup.-6] ha annually in Canada alone (Van Wagner 1988), and are considered a major cause of forest [...]

Research indicates that people respond to the elicitation of death thoughts by dogmatically defending their cultural worldviews. The current research examines the potential for conditions of creativity, a construct associated with open-mindedness, to promote a more explorative reaction to the threat of death thoughts. In Studies 1 and 2, thoughts of death or a control topic were activated and then participants engaged in either a creative or a control task. In Study 3, thoughts of death or a control topic were activated and then participants were presented with information suggesting that creativity is or is not culturally valued. After these conditions, social, intellectual, and environmental exploration (Study 1) and cultural worldview exploration (Studies 2 and 3) were measured. Results indicated that both engaging in a creative task and being informed that creativity is culturally valued facilitated exploration in response to thinking about death. Conceptual and applied implications are discussed. Keywords: terror management; mortality salience; creativity; exploration

Gene therapy for [beta]-thalassemia requires stable transfer of a [beta]-globin gene into hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and high and regulated hemoglobin expression in the erythroblastic progeny. We developed an erythroid-specific lentiviral vector driving the expression of the human [beta]-globin gene from a minimal promoter/enhancer element containing two hypersensitive sites from the [beta]-globin locus control region. Transplantation of transduced HSCs into thalassemic mice leads to stable and long-term correction of anemia with all red blood cells expressing the transgene. A frequency of 30-50% of transduced HSCs, harboring an average vector copy number per cell of 1, was sufficient to fully correct the thalassemic phenotype. In the mouse model of Cooley's anemia transplantation of transduced cells rescues lethality, leading to either a normal or a thalassemia intermedia phenotype. We show that genetically corrected erythroblasts undergo in vivo selection with preferential survival of progenitors harboring proviral integrations in genome sites more favorable to high levels of vector-derived expression. These data provide a rationale for a gene therapy approach to [beta]-thalassemia based on partially myeloablative transplantation protocols. gene therapy | hematopoietic stem cells | lentiviral vector

The terror management theory that nostalgia is a meaning-providing structure that helps individuals to live with the knowledge of certain death is examined. The findings support the hypothesis that nostalgia acts as a buffer against the effects of mortality salience on death-thought accessibility.

Byline: Henrietta. Wilson, David. Gammon, Tom. Routledge, Karen. Harrison-Phipps Background: Surgery remains the gold standard for patients with resectable nonsmall cell lung cancer. Current guidance identifies patients with poor pulmonary [...]

Seven methodologically diverse studies addressed 3 fundamental questions about nostalgia. Studies 1 and 2 examined the content of nostalgic experiences. Descriptions of nostalgic experiences typically featured the self as a protagonist in interactions with close others (e.g., friends) or in momentous events (e.g., weddings). Also, the descriptions contained more expressions of positive than negative affect and often depicted the redemption of negative life scenes by subsequent triumphs. Studies 3 and 4 examined triggers of nostalgia and revealed that nostalgia occurs in response to negative mood and the discrete affective state of loneliness. Studies 5, 6, and 7 investigated the functional utility of nostalgia and established that nostalgia bolsters social bonds, increases positive self-regard, and generates positive affect. These findings demarcate key landmarks in the hitherto uncharted research domain of nostalgia. Keywords: nostalgia, emotions, affect, self, relationships

We use the so-called 'bent-cable' model to describe natural phenomena that exhibit a potentially sharp change in slope. The model comprises two linear segments, joined smoothly by a quadratic bend. The class of bent cables includes, as a limiting case, the popular piecewise-linear model (with a sharp kink), otherwise known as the broken stick. Associated with bent-cable regression is the estimation of the bend-width parameter, through which the abruptness of the underlying transition may be assessed. We present worked examples and simulations to demonstrate the regularity and irregularity of bent-cable regression encountered in finite-sample settings. We also extend existing bent-cable asymptotics that previously were limited to the basic model with known linear slopes of 0 and 1. Practical conditions on the design are given to ensure regularity of the full bent-cable estimation problem if the underlying bend segment has nonzero width. Under such conditions, the least-squares estimators are shown to be consistent and to asymptotically follow a multivariate normal distribution. Furthermore, the deviance statistic (or the likelihood ratio statistic, if the random errors are normally distributed) is shown to have an asymptotic chi-squared distribution. KEY WORDS: Asymptotic theory; Changepoint; Least squares; Maximum likelihood; Segmented regression.

Previous research indicates that mortality salience and creative behavior combine to increase feelings of guilt, presumably over the disruption to social connection elicited by the call for innovative expression. The present studies examined whether satiating assimilation motives by highlighting conformity to others reduces this effect (Study 1) and facilitates positive psychological engagement (Study 2). Study I used a 2 (conformity vs. neutral feedback) x 2 (mortality salience vs. control) x 2 (creative task vs. noncreative task) design and had participants complete a self-report measure of guilt. Study 2 used a 2 (mortality salience vs. control) x 2 (other goal task vs. self-goal task) design, and after a creativity exercise, had participants complete measures of positive mood, vitality, and creative problem solving. Results indicated attending to assimilation needs reduced the elevated guilt that follows the juxtaposition of mortality salience and creative behavior and also increased a sense of positive engagement, Implications are briefly discussed. Keywords: terror management; creativity; growth motivation; emotions

The mutagenicity of tamoxifen DNA adducts formed by alpha-acetoxytamoxifen, a reactive ester producing the major DNA adduct formed in livers of tamoxifen-treated rats is investigated. However, given the high mutagenicity of dG-N(super 2)-tamoxifen adducts, if not excised, they may potentially contribute to the initiation of endometrial cancer in women.

Previous research has illustrated the negative psychological consequences of female body objectification. The present study explores how female body objectification may serve as a defense against unconscious existential fears. Drawing from terror management theory, an experiment was designed to test the potential functionality of female body objectification. Men and women were primed to think about either their own mortality or an aversive control topic, and levels of body objectification were then assessed for both self- and other (women)-objectification. Findings supported the hypothesis that priming mortality would increase both self- and other-objectification among women, and self-objectification among those who derive self-esteem from their body. Implications for this research are discussed.

According to the dual defense model of terror management, proximal defenses are engaged to reduce the conscious impact of mortality salience, whereas thoughts of death outside of conscious awareness motivate distal defenses aimed at maintaining self-esteem. Two experiments examined these ideas by assessing women's intentions to engage in tanning-related behavior. In Study 1, when concerns about death (relative to dental pain) were in focal attention, participants increased intentions to protect themselves from dangerous sun exposure. In contrast, when thoughts about death were outside of focal attention, participants decreased interest in sun protection. In Stud), 2, participants primed to associate tanned skin with an attractive appearance responded to mortality concerns outside of focal attention with increased interest in tanning products and services. These findings are discussed in relation to the dual-defense model of terror management, societal determinants of self-esteem, and implications for health risk and promotion. Keywords: tanning; self-esteem; mortality salience; proximal defenses; distal defenses

This research focuses on social capital, creating a model that allows for the study of the interaction of growth, labor mobility and social capital. Technical innovation, which fuels growth, requires labor reallocation that in turn has an effect on social capital.

Research has been conducted on the antiestrogenic drug tamoxifen used in breast cancer therapy. The effect of the tamoxifen DNA adducts on the 4-hydroxytamoxifen and alpha-acetoxytamoxifen mutagenicity in mammalian cells has been investigated and the results are discussed.

In this paper, we study an incentive problem that arises between a principal and two agents because they value a real option differently. The real option in our model is a timing option. The agents have limited capacity to undertake projects, and each agent's capacity can be filled now or later. Because the principal cares about capacity in the aggregate but each agent cares only about his own capacity, the agents assign a higher value to the option to wait. As a result, agents sometimes withhold ideas from the principal. We show that decentralization can be a solution to this problem. Delegating assignment rights to an agent reduces the option value of waiting for the other agent sufficiently that he is willing to reveal his ideas. (Real Options; Incentive Problems; Decentralization; Promotion), 1. Introduction In this paper, we study an incentive problem that arises between a principal (central manager) and two agents (local managers) because they value a real option differently. The [...]

To examine alterations in brain activation associated with pharmacologically induced memory impairment, we used functional MRI (fMRI) to study the effects of lorazepam and scopolamine on a face--name associative encoding paradigm. Ten healthy young subjects were scanned on four occasions, 2 weeks apart; they were administered i.v. saline during two placebo-scanning sessions and then alternately administered i.v. lorazepam (1 mg) or scopolamine (0.4 mg) in a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design. Both the extent and magnitude of activation within anatomic regions of interest (ROIs) were examined to determine the reproducibility of activation in the placebo sessions and the regional specificity of the pharmacologic effects. Activation within all ROIs was consistent across the two placebo scans during the encoding of novel face--name pairs (compared with visual fixation). With the administration of either lorazepam or scopolamine, significant decreases were observed in both the extent and magnitude of activation within the hippocampal, fusiform, and inferior prefrontal ROIs, but no significant alterations in activation in the striate cortex were found. Both medications impaired performance on postscan memory measures, and significant correlations between memory performance and extent of activation were found in hippocampal and fusiform ROIs. These findings suggest that pharmacologic effects can be detected with fMRI by using a reproducible experimental paradigm and that medications that impair memory also diminish activation in specific brain regions thought to subserve complex memory processes.

DR. ROUTLEDGE is a reader in geography at the University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland G12 8QQ., ********** The solidarity rally through the Narmada river valley arrives at Nisrapur, a village of 10,000 people near the banks of the river. This village is one of 62 slated [...]

The authors examine models for pricing commodities. Topics include endogenous inventory, crude oil futures, and hedging investments.

The localization of orexin neuropeptides in the lateral hypothalamus has focused interest on their role in ingestion. The orexigenic neurones in the lateral hypothalamus, however, project widely in the brain, and thus the physiological role of orexins is likely to be complex. Here we describe an investigation of the action of orexin A in modulating the arousal state of rats by using a combination of tissue localization and electrophysiological and behavioral techniques. We show that the brain region receiving the densest innervation from orexinergic nerves is the locus coeruleus, a key modulator of attentional state, where application of orexin A increases cell firing of intrinsic noradrenergic neurones. Orexin A increases arousal and locomotor activity and modulates neuroendocrine function. The data suggest that orexin A plays an important role in orchestrating the sleep-wake cycle.

Natural and synthetic steroidal estrogen were detected in the final effluent from sewage-treatment works (STW). Estrone and 17beta-estradiol were detected at concentrations in the tens of nanograms per liter range while the synthetic estrogen 17alpha-ethynulestradiol was detected in the low nanogram per liter range. Results reveal that sufficient amounts of natural steroidal estrogens can induce vitellogenin synthesis in male fish.

The major estrogenic chemicals present in sewage-treatment works (STW) effluents were efficiently isolated and identified using chemical fractionation and in vitro assay. The natural hormones 17beta-estradiol, estrone and the synthetic hormone 17alpha-ethynylestradiol were isolated from estrogenic fractions of sewage extracts. Results reveal that natural and synthetic hormones cause vitellogenin synthesis in male fish placed downstream of effluent discharges from STWs that receive mainly domestic inputs.

Study of the Maoist Naxalite movement in India illustrates the potential contribution of spatial analysis to social movement studies. Social movement theory focuses on social processes in time, and on the cultural and structural backgrounds to social movements, but neglects the contributions which geographers can make through analysis of the spatial context. Spatiality, which includes concepts of location, locale and sense of place, offers information on issues including the wider spatial contexts of social movements and potential aids or hindrances to collective action.